1
Q
What are twin studies?
A
- A study which investigates nature and nurture by comparing identical and non-identical twins.
- Twin studies look for concordance between sets of MZ twins compared to sets of DZ twins for a certain behaviour.
2
Q
What is the difference between Monozygotic (MZ) and Dizygotic (DZ) twins?
A
- MZ twins are identical twins and share 100% of their DNA.
- DZ twins are non-identical twins and share 50% of their DNA, like any other siblings.
3
Q
What are concordance rates?
A
- The degree to which 2 people are similar on a particular trait.
- Represented by a correlation coefficient
4
Q
Strengths of Twin Studies?
A
- Enables researchers to investigate the influence of genes, as it’s assumed twins share the same environments.
- Info for twin studies is often taken from twin registries –> Samples are large and representative.
5
Q
Weaknesses of Twin Studies?
A
- Might overestimate genetic influence –> MZ twins much more likely to have similar environments than DZ twins.
- They provide a very broad indication that a behaviour has a genetic origin, but they cannot identify any specific genes involved.
6
Q
What are adoption studies?
A
- Studies looking at children who’re adopted, and then comparing their characteristics with that of their biological and adoptive parents.
7
Q
How are adoption studies usually measured?
A
- Using a correlational technique - Researcher is looking for a correlation between the behaviour of the children and their parents.
8
Q
What are adoption studies typically looking for?
A
- Looking for characteristics they display.
- If the PP has characteristics of their natural parent, then they can be said to be genetic.
- If the PP has characteristics of their adopted parent, then they can be said to be environmental.
9
Q
Strengths of Adoption Studies?
A
- Remove the extraneous variable of the environment –> Environment is not shared between the twins or their biology is not shared.
- Have been useful in showing that twin studies overestimate genetic factors. –> E.g., Eley et al. (1998) finding environmental factors more important, despite twin studies suggesting genetics are.
10
Q
Weaknesses of Adoption Studies?
A
- Children may be adopted to families similar to their bio families, making environmental influences very similar.
- People who adopt are unusual - tend to be better educated, low rates of mental illness, higher socioeconomic groups etc. –> Not representative of the general population.
11
Q
Why would we use animals in research?
A
- Have a simpler but SIMILAR CNS.
- It is possible to control environments where non-humans live.
- Researchers can conduct invasive procedures on non-humans, such as lesions.
- More ethical to test on animals than humans?
- Cheap & easy to repeat and handle
12
Q
Animals (Scientific Procedures Act) 1986
A
- The Law governing the use of animals in scientific research.
- States researchers need a licence from the Home Office, premises MUST be licenced for animal research (and the researcher too), and lab animals must be from high quality suppliers who comply with the Home Office Standards.
13
Q
What is a project licence?
A
- A licence specifying the species, number of animals and procedures that may be used.
- Only granted after considering the pros & cons of researching on the animals
14
Q
What is a personal licence?
A
- A licence given to researchers after proper training courses are taken, providing they can perform the procedure.
- Holders must seek to minimise any suffering, pain, or distress
15
Q
Arguments FOR animal research?
A
- Animals typically reproduce a lot quicker than humans –> E.g., Rats’ gestation periods are around 22 days –> Quicker to conduct research.
- High internal validity –> Can be no demand characteristics in animals.
- Animals share basic CNS structures to us –> Means that we’re able to generalise to some extent from animals to humans.
- Whilst unnecessary pain must be avoided, researchers can inflict pain on animals (unlike humans).
16
Q
Arguments AGAINST animal research?
A
- Lacks EV –> Lab studies create behaviour that would NOT be natural for animals as they’re not in their natural habitat.
- Not really generalisable to humans –> We have higher brain functioning and more complex behaviours than animals.
- Can be argued that animals have the same rights as humans, and we have a moral obligation to protect them.
- Benefits of research are not known until AFTER the research, so the research may be for nothing.
17
Q
What are case studies?
A
- An in-depth study over time, usually of an individual or a small group.
- Usually undertaken in a real life context.
18
Q
Strengths of Case Studies
A
- Challenging existing theories
- Can be used to investigate instances of human behaviour and experiences that are rare or cannot be produced in a lab.
- Produces rich, in-depth data because the complex interaction of many factors can be studied –> Important for holistic psychologists.
19
Q
Weaknesses of Case Studies
A
- Subjective - often based on interviews that are subject to researcher bias.
- Difficult to generalise from individual cases as each one has unique characteristics - E.g., Phineas Gage
- Often necessary to use recollection of past events as part of the case study - May be unreliable as people’s memories are inaccurate
- There are important ethical issues such as confidentiality and anonymity.
20
Q
Who is the case study used for Cognitive Psychology?
A
- Henry Molaison (H.M)
21
Q
Explain some basic facts about H.M
A
- Was an American memory disorder patient who was widely studied from 1957-2008.
- Suffered from epileptic seizures –> Surgery removed his Hippocampus to help –> Suffered memory loss as a side effect.
- Unable to learn new songs, faces, or make any new memories after the surgery.
- However, he began to learn new motor skills (like drawing a path through a maze) but didn’t remember that he’d done them.
22
Q
When are case studies used in Clinical Psychology?
A
- When studying those with rare symptoms or individuals taking part in a specific therapy.
- Often gathers qualitative data
23
Q
Adv of case studies in Clinical Psychology
A
- High EV - the research provides an insight into the behaviour of patients involved.
24
Q
Disadv of case studies in Clinical Psychology
A
- Research is subjective –> Based on researcher’s interpretation.
- Focuses on a small group so may be hard to generalise.
- Sessions aren’t recorded –> Reliant on memory –> Inaccurate?
25
What is the case study for Clinical Psychology?
- Lavarenne et al (2013)
26
Explain the procedure of Lavarenne et al (2013)
- Thursday group sessions --> 10 PPs suffering with Sz meet once a week.
- The group gives them structure on how to cope with Sz and encourages a sense of connection with others.
- Group leaders note down key points about the patients' behaviour, expressions and comments.
- Reports on 1 specific session before Christmas, 6 PPs present.
27
Explain the findings of Lavarenne et al (2013)
- Key theme was "fragile ego boundaries" --> Breakdown between perception and reality.
- Suggested the group may be reacting to potential change in routine by having a break from the other group.
- Concluded that interactions with others threatens their fragile boundaries, meaning they cut off from human relations in the outer world.
28
What are CAT Scans?
- Special X-Ray tests that produce cross-sectional images of the body using X-Rays and a computer.
- Person lies inside a large scanner and it rotates around them, taking pics of the brain from different angles.
- Builds up a very detailed pic of the structure of the brain.
- Sometimes a dye is used (Iodine & Barium)
29
Strengths of CAT Scans?
- Useful for revealing abnormal structures in the brain - e.g., tumours.
- Quality of the image is much higher for CAT Scans then it is for normal X-Rays.
30
Weaknesses of CAT Scans?
- Require more radiation than traditional X-Rays --> Cannot be used often.
- Only provide structural info and still images --> Cannot measure brain activity --> Limited use in researching brain structure.
31
What are PET Scans?
- Scans measuring metabolic activity in the brain.
- Patient injected with glucose & water, with a radioactive tracer. --> Tracer travels to the brain and highlights which areas are being used the most.
- Shows how well certain body functions are working and can identify any abnormalities.
32
Strengths of PET Scans?
- PET Scans show the brain in action, useful for psychological research.
- E.g., Volkow et al using PET Scans to link Dopamine transporters whilst taking Cocaine to a user's experience of the drug.
- Can indicate the specific areas of the brain that're involved in experience.
33
Weaknesses of PET Scans?
- Results may not be easy to interpret --> E.g., they have shown different brain activity in people doing the same task.
- Precise location of active areas in relation to brain structure is difficult to pinpoint.
- Ethical issues to do with injection of radioactive Glucose --> Damages cells so cannot be used often --> Limits when it can be used in research.
34
What are fMRI scans?
- Scan which uses radio waves to measure blood oxygen levels in the brain.
- Areas of the brain that are most active = Most oxygen --> Activity picked up through radio signals.
- Scan produces a 3D image done by a computer.
35
Strengths of fMRI scans?
- Shows important info about which areas of the brain are being used at any one time.
- E.g., Pardini et al, measured volume of Amygdala and linked it to aggression levels.
- Doesn't use radiation --> Safe.
- Images produced are very clear and can show brain activity to the mm.
36
Weaknesses of fMRI scans?
- Expensive
- Only effective if the person who's brain is being investigated stays very still --> Not suitable for some, e.g., children.
- Around a 5-sec time lag between brain activity and it showing on the screen --> Cause problems when trying to interpret the info received.
37
What are pilot studies?
- Small, trial versions of proposed studies to test their effectiveness and make improvements.
- Helpful to identify potential issues early.
38
What is content analysis?
- A research method used to measure the no of times a behaviour or event occurs within 1 or several forms of media.
- Turns qualitative data into quantitative data.
39
What is the process of content analysis?
1. Data is collected
2. Researcher reads through data, familiarises themselves with it.
3. Researcher identifies coding units.
4. Data analysed by applying coding units.
5. Tally is made on the number of times that coding unit appears.
40
Strengths of content analysis?
- Tends to have high EV --> Based on observations of what people actually do.
- When the sources can be accessed by others, content analysis can be replicated - reliable.
- Easy and not time-consuming.
- Statistical Analysis can be conducted.
41
Weaknesses of Content Analysis?
- Only describes the data - doesn't tell us WHY it occurs.
- Observer bias as observer picks out the coding units.
- Likely to be culture-biased as source materials are rooted in culture.
42
What is a longitudinal study?
- Studies that occur over a long period of time and often involve comparing a group of individuals over weeks, months, or years.
43
Strengths of Longitudinal Studies?
- Not difficult to make comparisons between different people with the same disorder, who could be affected by individual differences.
- The only way of being able to reliably measure the effect of time on a behaviour.
44
Weaknesses of Longitudinal Studies?
- Some PPs from the sample may not be available for the whole period of research --> Questions validity.
- By the time the meaningful data can be useful to draw a conclusion, data may be irrelevant.
- Clinical psych is an area that develops quickly, so within a few years data may become irrelevant.
45
What is a cross-sectional study?
- Takes 1 moment in time and compares 1 group of PPs with another at that time.
- PPs are only tested once, and the findings provide a snapshot of the differences between the behaviour of the 2 groups tested.
- Often used to look at the effect of age as an IV on certain key behaviours/abilities.
46
Adv of Cross-Sectional Studies
- Data is drawn together more quickly so conclusions can be gathered more rapidly.
- Results will be more valid as they are reported at the time and not several years later.
47
Disadv of Cross-Sectional Studies
- Individual Differences may be present as different people are being compared.
- Issues of cohort effects as results of research may be due to being raised in a particular time or place.
48
What is cross-cultural research?
- Involves taking samples from different cultural groups to draw comparisons about the similarities/differences between them.
- Specifically important for Clinical Psych, as researchers can see whether Culture has an impact on the development of disorders.
49
Strengths of cross-cultural research
- Researchers can gain an understanding of how culture plays a role in the validity/reliability of diagnoses
- Can identify elements of abnormal behaviour that are purely biological, as culture does not have an impact on them.
- Reduces the level of ethnocentrism and improves generalisability.
50
Weaknesses of cross-cultural research?
- Most cross-cultural research has been conducted by Western psychologists --> Can be a problem as researchers may expect certain behaviours from certain cultures --> Swayed results.
- Use of local researchers may help to overcome this.
51
What is a meta-analysis?
- Involves looking at secondary data from multiple studies and drawing the findings together to make overall conclusions.
- Researchers will seek out studies from a variety of places, cultures, and times, which have all tested the same area.
- In Clinical Psych, researchers have conducted meta-analyses in many different areas, such as the effectiveness of therapies and treatments across different patient groups.
52
Strengths of meta-analyses
- Conclusions can be drawn from different areas and a huge sample can be gathered quickly and cheaply.
- Do not need to worry about the ethics associated with conducting research.
53
Weaknesses of meta-analyses
- Researchers do not have involvement in gathering data directly --> May be problems with validity or reliability.
- Publication bias --> Some studies which showed no effects may be included, affecting validity and reliability.
Psychology Research Methods
flashcards
Decks in class (15)
# Cards
-
Types of data12
-
Sampling15
-
Research Designs11
-
Hypotheses6
-
Self Report Methods17
-
Types of experiment12
-
Observations15
-
Additional Research Methods53
-
Control Issues12
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Descriptive Stats13
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Methodological Issues14
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Analysis of Qualitative Data8
-
Conventions of Published Research13
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Ethical Issues in Animal Research6
-
Inferential Stats16
