Addiction: Risk factors

Question 1

What are the 5 risk factors for addiction?

Answer 1

Genetic vulnerability
Stress
Personality
Family influences
Peers

Question 2

Outline personality as a risk factor for addiction

Answer 2

Extraversion - extraverts are chronically under aroused and as such may engage in addictive behaviours to gain stimulation to raise arousal in the CNS - to create homeostasis

2. Neuroticism – people high on this trait experience negative affect e.g. anxiety, and may engage in addictive behaviours to alleviate tension through a form of self-medication E.g. drown your sorrows with alcohol nonsense
3. Psychoticism – this relates to sensation-seeking, impulsivity and being emotionally detached. Eysenck also suggested this is related to dopamine function. It is believed individuals high on this trait are most susceptible to addictions as they help manage these personality traits. Addictive behaviours raise dopamine levels
4. In addition, Cloniger (1987) proposed that individuals high in novelty seeking, inhibited harm avoidance and reward dependence are extremely vulnerable to substance abuse. This is called Clonigers tridimensional theory
5. The key trait is impulsivity leading to risk taking, sensation seeking and a chaotic lifestyle.

Question 3

Evaluation of personality as a risk factor: cause and effect issue

Answer 3

There is a cause and effect issue with personality as a risk factor

Teeson (2002) points out that personality research is largely correlational, and although many personality traits are
common amongst addicts they do not necessarily predict addictive behaviours.
In addition it is unknown which came first – the addiction or the personality trait, as addictive behaviour can have
profound effects on behaviour, cognition and personality. Further, personality based explanations have a genetic basis.

Plasticity could mean our brains/ personality are changed by addictive behaviours

This implies that the risk factor of personality is inconclusive and awaits further research

Question 4

Evaluation of personality as a risk factor: evidence

cao and su

Answer 4

There is convincing evidence about personality and addiction from a study with Chinese
Adolescents
Summarise the study by Cao & Su (2006)
Using a volunteer sample of 2620 high school kids, pts completed several survery measuring personality variables and internet usage. The pts aged between 12-18, with a mean age of 15.

Results: 64 students were diagnosed as suffering from internet addiction, prevalence of 2.4%
This group had significantly higher scores on neuroticism and psychoticism than comparison groups

This shows convincing support for the role of personality in internet addiction

Question 5

Evaluation of personality as a risk factor: alternative explanations

Answer 5

There are also alternative explanations of how personality can influence addictive behaviours.
For example, a correlation has been found between addiction related behaviour and antisocial
personality disorder (ASPD). ASPD begins in adolescence and incorporates many personality
related risk factors, but the key one is impulsivity. This is marked by a lack of planning, a high
degree of risk taking, a preference for immediate gratification of desires and a chaotic lifestyle.
This implies that the role of personality in addiction is complex and potentially comorbid with other serious health concerns

Question 6

Evaluation of personality as a risk factor: evidence

Verhheul

Answer 6

Further evidence for the role of personality is shown by the high number of addicts with
personality disorders (i.e. Its comorbidity with personality issues)
Summarise the comments by Verhheul et al 1995
Research has suggested a relationship between personality disorders and addiction. Verheul et al completed a review of research into this area and estimated personality disorders wereestimated to be 44% in alcoholics, 70% cocaine addicts and 79% for opiate addicts. They also suggested they were even more common in polydrug users

This makes this factor of personality more convincingly involved with addiction

Question 7

Evaluation of personality as a risk factor: oversimplification

Answer 7

some personality factors make you less likely to develop an addiction

e.g. hardiness training can be used to protect against addiction

personality as a risk factor is hence an oversimplification

Question 8

Outline stress as a risk factor

Answer 8

As suggested by some of the personality factors, stress is believed to be related to many addictive
behaviours. According to the ‘tension-reduction hypothesis’ (Cappell & Greeley, 1987) people may
engage in addictive behaviours (e.g. alcohol dependency) in an attempt to reduce tension and
anxiety. Tension creates a heightened sense of arousal, and much addictive behaviour will reduce this
state e.g. alcohol can reduce concerns in the short term.

everyday stress= people report they drink, smoke, use drugs etc as a means of coping with daily hassles such as r/ship probs, money, work stress. Such stressors contribute to the initiation and contribution of addiction, as well as relapse after periods of abstinence.

traumatic stress= those exposed to severe stress are more vulnerable to addictions, esp kids who have experinced parental loss or child abuse. PTSD is also linked to addiction, Driessen et al 2008 found 30% drug addicts and 15% alcohol addicts also suffered PTS- they were comorbid
‘mere’ trauma was not sufficient to lead to an addiction

Question 9

EVALUATION OF STRESS: evidence

Answer 9

This is evidence to support the notion that stress and/or personal difficulties are related to
substance abuse.

For example, alcohol dependence occurs twice as much in those with social phobias than those
without (Schneier et al 1991). We could presume the anxiety and stress from this condition
contributes to addiction.

In fact Buckey found 47% of patients with schiz are comorbid with substance abuse.

This illustrates that stress, and particularly mental health issues clearly relate to addiction

Question 10

EVALUATION OF STRESS: individual differences

Answer 10

There are individual differences that need to be taken into account.
Stress may create vulnerabilities in some but not all people, and personality traits should be
considered.
KOBASA 1979= if someone has high hardiness they have string defence against the negative effects of stress. Key features of this personality include high in control, commitment, challenge (eager to overcome challenges). This personality trait could be seen as a protective factor against addiction

This means this factor is incomplete as the sole explanation for addiction.

Question 11

EVALUATION OF STRESS: cause and effect issues

Answer 11

There is a cause and effect issue with STRESS as a risk factor in addiction.
Although evidence links stress and addiction, it is largely retrospective research with no before
measurements meaning we cannot assume stress CAUSES addiction.
Perhaps when you become addicted- start to develop lots of stress or perhaps stress leads to addiction or perhaps a third factor causes both e.g. personality
This means the links between STRESS and ADDICTION is simply correlational.

Question 12

According to many psychologists, peer networks replace parents in
becoming the primary source of reinforcement from about the ages of
about

Answer 12

12-14

Hinde, 1985

Question 13

What theory in psychology emphasises our (fickle) need to be liked and accepted?

Answer 13

NSI

Question 14

PEER NETWORKS influence in addiction can be explained by:
1-
2-

Answer 14

1- SLT linking to OC
2- social identity theory

Question 15

Outline how SLT affects addiction (peer influence)

Answer 15

Research into SLT – states that you learn through observation of others and those
they have most contact with. Peer encouragement and approval can also serve as
a big reinforcement. (according to OC that could instigate behaviours)
However, once an addictive behaviour is started (e.g.
smoking) direct experience determines whether they are continued.

(OC= smoking removes tress- negative reinforcement)

Question 16

Outline how Social identity theory affects addiction (peer influence)

Answer 16

Social identity Theory (SIT, by Tajfel 1970). This theory states that much of our
social identity is gained through being members of ingroups, where we adopt the
norms and behaviours central to the group. For example, in peer groups where
status as a ‘smokers’ is central, then individuals are likely to be similar in their
smoking habits and consumption.

Question 17

EVALUATION OF PEER GROUP INFLUENCE: evidence

sussman and ames’

Answer 17

This is evidence to support the notion that peers influence addictive behaviours.
Sussman and Ames’ (2001) research has shown that peer use of drugs was one of the best
predictors of future drug use by others. It was believed that peers helped create normative
perceptions (or subjective norms) that such behaviours are socially acceptable.
This suggests that peer influence is a significant factor in addiction and its management.

Question 18

EVALUATION OF PEER GROUP INFLUENCE: influenced by age

Answer 18

The role of peer networks is heavily influenced by AGE, and has minimal impact at certain
stages throughout our lives.
Hinde- peers particularly influential during adolescence, then replaced by partners. Hence peers best understood with age

As many people develop addictions at a later stage in life when their peer group may hold
less sway, this means….. peer influence role in addicition of incomplete

Question 19

EVALUATION OF PEER GROUP INFLUENCE: correlational, third factor?

Answer 19

This factor is also only correlational. Does group membership or addictive behaviour
appear first? Or are they both a result of a 3rd unknown factor like personality?
perhaps we are drawn to some people because they are similar to ourselves and share social demographics and even personality! But does the addiction direct friendships or peers direct addiction.

Hence, peers and peer choice may be the result of other risk factors in addiction (e.g. personality or social demographics)

Question 20

EVALUATION OF PEER GROUP INFLUENCE: practical applications

Answer 20

Research into peer networks and addictions has good PRACTICAL APPLICATION
As an early onset of drinking has been found as a key factor in addiction, social norm interventions have been developed to address adolescent behaviour and attitude formation Through health promotions focusing on adolescent perceptions of how their peers think, this approach challenges overestimations of problem behaviours . Correcting these misperceptions through education can decrease addictions and the likelihood of substance dependence

This implies…peer influence as a risk facrot can he,p society target prevention strategies

Question 21

Outline genetic influences as a risk factor for addiction

Answer 21

Genetic factors have been implicated in creating a genetic vulnerability in developing
addictive behaviours.
This can help explain why some people may become addicted to substances/behaviours
having just sampled the behaviour, whereas others (without vulnerabilities) can sample
behaviours and substances without developing a full blown addiction.
It has been suggested that pathological gamblers may inherit a faulty
A1 DRD2 gene (Comings et al 1996) that, in effect, reduces the
number of dopamine receptors in our pleasure centres within the
limbic system. This means individuals with this variant are less
sensitive to rewards and may seek out extra stimulating activities like
gambling to compensate.
Blum et al (1996) have called this the reward deficiency syndrome and have outlined how
this creates genetic vulnerabilities in many compulsive disorders. For example, 69% of a
sample of alcohol dependent users and 51% of a sample of cocaine dependent users had
this genetic variant (Blum et al, 1996).

Question 22

EVALUATING GENETIC RISK FACTORS IN ADDICTION: evidence

sheids et al

Answer 22

There is evidence to show that genetics are involved in many addictions
Adoption study, Shields et al examined the concordance b/w 42 twin pairs that were reared apar. Only 9 pairs were discordant showing genetic similarity is a major factor in starting to smoke

This suggests … faulty genes passed down through family could be a key factor in addiction

Question 23

EVALUATING GENETIC RISK FACTORS IN ADDICTION: finding can be explained by nature v nurture

Answer 23

However, this finding can be easily explained using nurture and environmental influences
patterns of behaving and whats deemed acceptable and legitimate in the household could be imitated and reinforced in the household and as such maintain addictive behaviours through nurture not genetics
This means the role of genetics in addiction….is largely inconclusive

Question 24

EVALUATING GENETIC RISK FACTORS IN ADDICTION: overly deterministic

Answer 24

Despite the need for general nomothetic laws, the role of genetics in addiction is overly
deterministic.
It implies we have no free will and if we happen to possess any of the faulty genetic traits we are
destined to be an addict for life. This is clearly not the case as illustrated by Blum et al (1996) and
the A1 DRD2 variant. This genetic variant is not present in all cases of addictions and is common
in the normal population (up to 20%) as well as those suffering from OCD and Tourette’s
syndrome
This means genetic risk factors are not exclusive to addictive behaviours.

Question 25

EVALUATING GENETIC RISK FACTORS IN ADDICTION: used as part of diathesis-stress

Answer 25

For a more comprehensive view of risk factors and addiction, GENETIC factors can be used
as part of the diathesis stress account.

diathesis= genetic vulnerability A1DR2 variant
Stress= poor role models/ high levels of stress

hence genetic account can attribute to more complete holistic account of addiction

Question 26

Outline SLT as part of family influences as a risk factor for add

Answer 26

Social learning theory suggests we model our behaviour on key role models and some of
the most critical role models are in the home i.e. parents and siblings. SLT suggests that we
may ‘learn’ to become addicted to behaviours through vicarious reinforcement and role
models.

Question 27

Outline schemas as part of family influences as a risk factor for add

Answer 27

B. Families also help shape our expectancies about the world, and contribute to our
schemas. When relating to addiction we can see that if we are led to believe that some
addictions like alcohol and smoking relieve stress and boredom, we may initiate this type of
behaviour ourselves for the expected rewards.

Question 28

Outline parenting style as part of family influences as a risk factor for add

Answer 28

Parenting style can also have an influence on addictive behaviours. For example,
uninvolved parenting (neglectful parenting) where uninvolved parents lack focus on their
children. Authoritarian parents are adamant in enforcing rules and regulations, but do so
with a focus on fostering obedience, rather than building a mutual understanding. Finally,
permissive parents are over indulgent, give their child too much attention and are too quick
to respond to their children’s needs. This lack of discipline and self-control opens up more
opportunity for children to fall into patterns of drug use. Research highlights the effects of
permissive parenting on addiction, revealing a link to increases in alcohol and tobacco use
during adolescence.

Question 29

EVALUATING FAMILY INFLUENCES IN ADDICTION: evidence

Goddard

Answer 29

There is evidence for the role of SLT from family influences in addictive behaviours.
Goddard (1990) completed longitudinal research to examine factors that may predict
youngsters’ smoking behaviour. The main finding was that if parents smoke, the kids are far
more likely to themselves. In addition, Murray (1994) found that if parents are perceived as
very anti-smoking then the kids were 7 times less likely to smoke.
This evidence implies parents often lead by example in SMOKING behaviour and
potential addiction.

Question 30

EVALUATING FAMILY INFLUENCES IN ADDICTION: theortical flaw

Answer 30

Research highlighting the role of Family influences in addiction has a theoretical flaw, in
that it can be easily explained through genetics.
Briefly explain why having ‘addictive’ behaviours through family generations may be a result of genes and nothing else – you
may wish to refer to Shields 1962 adoption study

This implies that the risk factor of family influences in addiction may be overstated.

Question 31

EVALUATING FAMILY INFLUENCES IN ADDICTION: more critical in early years

Answer 31

The role of peer influence in addiction is argued to be more critical than parental
influence in the teenage years.
Briefly explain Hindes (1985) comments regarding peer influences
12-14 peers become primary source of reinforcement in comparison to parents, as we age partners take over this role

This suggests that the role of parental influence in addiction is more critical in early
formative years.

Question 32

EVALUATING FAMILY INFLUENCES IN ADDICTION: practical applications

Answer 32

This theory has good practical applications.
For example, if families can be seen as influencing children’s tendencies towards addictive
behaviours, then intervention strategies can focus on this factor and target parents with the aim
to emphasise the extent of their influence and persuade them to model positive behaviours
rather than addictive ones. For example, parenting classes to highlight the risks of involved with modelling dangerous behaviour and not being permissive parents

In this way, highlighting the role of family influences may help to reduce addictive
behaviours.