Adaptations and Responses to Fitness Training Flashcards
responses to resistance training
> greater neutral activation > greater motor unit recruitment > greater mobilisation of energy > the release of catabolic and anabolic hormones > local blood flow increases > lactic acid levels rise
greater neural activity
the frequency and speed at which nervous impulses are sent to muscle cells is increased.
greater motor unit recruitment
in accordance with the size principle, additional motor units are recruited until such a time that the muscle(s) can move the load or all motor units have been activated.
greater mobilisation of energy
the release and subsequent use of metabolic substrates like creatine phosphate and glycogen increases energy output of muscle cells
the release of catabolic and anabolic hormones
the release of peptide hormones (growth hormone and insulin) and steroid hormones (testosterone and oestrogen) to stimulate the growth and recovery of muscle tissue after training
local blood flow increases
blood flow is increased to the site of the active muscles in order to deliver essential glucose and removed waste products. this results in additional fluids in the sarcoplasm and a temporary increase in muscle volume. often this is referred to by weight trainers as the ‘pump’, or sarcoplasmic hypertrophy
lactic acid levels rise
glucose metabolism causes levels of lactic acid to rise in the active muscle, leading to a local burning and aching sensation
hypertrophy (adaptation to strength training)
the cross-section of the overloaded muscle(s) increases which results in an increase in the overall muscle size.
Hypertrophy largely affects the fast twitch muscle fibres, meaning those who have more slow twitch fibres are unlikely to make the same hypertrophy gains
increased type 2b fibre concentration (adaptation to strength training)
when strength training is performed for a considerable period of time, type 2a fibres begin to develop the physical characteristics of the b fibres thus enabling the muscle to generate even greater volumes of force
hyperplasia (adaptation to strength training)
some research authorities have claimed that a single muscle fibre has the capacity to split into two separate fibres which would allow an individual to develop more muscle fibres = hyperplasia
this is speculative and controversial
greater storage of ATP/CP (adaptation to strength training)
the increased muscle size results in a greater volume of fluid (sarcoplasm) within the muscle, providing a greater potential for the storage of ATP/CP - higher levels increase the anaerobic capacity of the muscle
increased anaerobic enzymes (adaptation to strength training)
an increase in the number of anaerobic enzymes also occurs as a result of regular strength training, particularly myosin ATPasem creatine kinase, myokinase and phosphofructokinase. These enzymes help to accelerate the speed at which energy (ATP) can be generated from glycolysis.
reduced proprioceptor sensitivity (adaptation to strength training)
the sensitivity of the muscle spindles and golgi tendon organs will diminish, which enables the muscles to withstand a greater magnitude of force and tension without initiating the stretch reflex or autogenic inhibition.
in novice exercisers the stretch reflex and autogenic inhibition can result in an involuntary muscle relaxation during the exercise technique = increased risk of injury
increased strength of the tendinous attachments (adaptation to strength training)
the strength of the muscle’s tendinous attachment to the periosteum will increase, enabling the muscle to withstand more force and tension
reduced mitochondria density (adaptation to strength training)
strength training reduces the mitochondrial density in the loaded muscle which will reduce the muscle’s ability to generate aerobic energy
increased calcium release (adaptation to strength training)
the magnitude of calcium released within the muscle from the sarcoplasmic reticulum also increases following a regular programme of strength training - this increases both the strength and speed of the muscular contractions
increased angle of pennation (adaptation to strength training)
in pennate muscle fibres, strength training has been shown to increase the angle of pennation which ultimately increases the muscles ability to produce higher levels of force
increased active motor units (adaptation to strength training)
an increase in the number of active motor units will occur, allowing the nervous system to recruit a greater number of muscle fibres. Similar neural adaptations will also enable the speed at which the twitches are delivered to the muscle to increase, thus increasing the speed of the muscle contractions
guidelines for muscular strength training
frequency = 2-3 times p/week intensity = 2-4 sets, 6-10 reps, 75-85% of 1RM, 2-3 mins time = variable, depending on how many muscle groups are being worked Type = variable, but at least exercises for each muscle
increased mitochondrial density (adaptations to muscular endurance training)
muscular endurance training results in an increased size of mitochondria - which enables a greater production of ATP from the aerobic energy pathway
increased myoglobin concentration (adaptations to muscular endurance training)
myoglobin is a protein that transports and stores oxygen through and within the skeletal muscles. Regular endurance training results in an increase in the volume of myoglobin, which in turn facilitates a greater transport of oxygen through the muscular environment
capillarisation (adaptations to muscular endurance training)
this is a structural adaptation that results in a greater number of capillaries forming within the active tissues. Regular endurance training results in a greater number of capillaries forming in and around the type 1 and 2a fibres, thus increasing the delivery of oxygen and nutrients
increased lactate threshold (adaptations to muscular endurance training)
muscular endurance training results in a greater exposure to lactic acid and hydrogen ions. this exposure increases the muscle’s ability to “buffer” these acids and ultimately reduce the acidity of the muscular environment. this buffering process is primarily controlled by the salt ‘bicarbonate’ and ultimately increases the lactate threshold and subsequently the point at which the OBLA occurs
increased type 1 fibre type (adaptations to muscular endurance training)
when muscular endurance training undertaken over an extended period of time, the type 2a fibres begin to transform and develop the physical characteristics of the type 1 fibres, thus increasing their endurance capacity
An increased number of active motor units will occur, allowing nervous system to recruit a greater number of muscle fibres. similar neural adaptations will also enable the speed at which the twitches are delivered to the muscle to increase, thus increasing the speed of the muscle contractions
guidelines for muscular endurance training
frequency = 2-3 times a week intensity = 1-3 sets, 15-25 reps. 40-60% 1RM, 30-90 secs rest time = variable depending on how many muscle groups being worked type = variable but at least two different exercises for each muscle
muscular fitness training
the integration of both muscular strength and endurance training. while muscular fitness training will result in a wide range of physiological and psychological benefits, the extent of the strength or endurance adaptations will reduce when thes approaches are combined
guidelines for muscular fitness training
frequency = 2-3 times per week intensity = 1-3 sets, 8-10 exercises, 70-75% 1RM, 90-120 secs rest time = variable depending on how many muscle groups are being worked type = variable but at least 2 different exercises for each muscle
increased muscle length (adaptations to flexibility training)
an increased resting length of the sarcomere occurs from a programme of regular stretching. when this occurs along the full length of the muscle the whole muscle increases in length
reduced proprioceptor sensitivity (adaptations to flexibility training)
a reduced sensitivity of the muscle spindles and golgi tendon organs will delay the onset of the stretch reflex, enabling the exerciser to stretch the muscle further
increased movement economy (adaptations to flexibility training)
improved efficiency of movement during exercise will result because more flexible muscles create less resistance and opposition to the desired movement
improved posture (adaptations to flexibility training)
stretching helps to improve the balance between antagonistic pairs of muscles and to restore existing muscular imbalances. this is crucial in the maintenance of good posture and healthy joints
removal of waste products (adaptations to flexibility training)
performing stretches at the end of a workout helps to remove waste products and reduce the likelihood of sore muscles 24-48 hours post-exercise = DOMS
guidelines for flexibility training
frequency = 5-7 times a week intensity = slow sustained stretches of moderate discomfort time = 10-30 seconds type = static stretches
responses to flexibility training
- activation of the stretch reflex
- relaxation of the antagonist
stimulation of the golgi-tendon organs (GTOs)
activation of the stretch reflex
muscle spindles are stimulated in the muscle(s) being stretched, causing the muscle to contract towards the end of its range to resist the lengthening
relaxation of the antagonist
in accordance with the principles of reciprocal inhibition, the antagonist muscle(s) are relaxed/inhibited to allow the agonist to lengthen
stimulation of the golgi-tendon organs
with prolonged stretches, the GTOs are stimulated at the myotendinous junction to inhibit the stretch reflex, thereby allowing muscle cells to be further lengthened
general benefits of cardiovascular training
- increased heart rate
- increased stroke volume
- increased cardiac output
- increased systolic blood pressure
- vasodilation
- vasoconstriction
- increased respiratory rate
- increased ejection fraction
increased capillarisation (adaptations to cardiovascular endurance training)
an increase in the capillary network surrounding the alveoli allows a greater surface area for the exchange of oxygen between the capillary and the alveoli
increased use of dead space (adaptations to cardiovascular endurance training)
occurs as a direct result of capillarisation
refers to volume of gas that partakes in the gaseous exchange across the alveolar wall
when this exchange takes place a % of gas in the alveoli is not involved in this process = ‘dead space’
when capillarisation occurs it allows greater opportunity for gaseous exchange and therefore reduces dead space
increased oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange (adaptations to cardiovascular endurance training)
as a direct result increased capillarisation and use of dead space, and an increase in the size and number of alveoli, the oxygen delivery and carbon dioxide removal is increased, thus delaying fatigue and ensuring aerobic energy production can continue
increased stroke volume (adaptations to cardiovascular endurance training)
this occurs largely due to hypertrophy of the myocardium, which in-turn enables the heart to eject more blood from its chambers which each beat
because the heart ejects more blood from each beat, if does not need to beat as frequently at rest, thus rest and exercising heart rate falls
decreased resting and exercising heart rate (adaptations to cardiovascular endurance training)
the reduction in resting and exercising heart rate is brought about by the increased stroke volume and hypertrophy of the myocardium. this in-turn reduces the number of times the heart needs to beat at rest and during exercise to deliver an equivalent level of oxygen
left ventricular hypertrophy (adaptations to cardiovascular endurance training)
because the heart muscle is placed under considerable stress during effective cardiovascular exercise, it responds as any other muscle does. thus the increased number of cardiac contractile units in the myocardium affords a stronger and more forceful heartbeat
increased cardiac output (adaptations to cardiovascular endurance training)
the cardiac output is increased as a result of all the other cardiovascular adaptations. at rest, the cardiac output usually remains the constant, during exercise however, the cardiovascular system becomes far more efficient at delivering blood and oxygen to the active tissues
increased blood plasma volume (adaptations to cardiovascular endurance training)
allows the heart rate to be reduced because greater volumes of blood carry greater volumes of blood cells. the increase in red blood cell concentration provides higher concentrations of haemoglobin which allows more oxygen to be delivered to tissues
increased red blood cells (adaptations to cardiovascular endurance training)
produced by the marrow of the skeleton, these oxygen carrying cells are able to transport a greater quantity of oxygen to the working tissue and thus reduce the physical load placed on the heart
increased haemoglobin levels (adaptations to cardiovascular endurance training)
found in red blood cells, haemoglobin is a bend of iron and protein and is the primary oxygen deliverer within the body. an increase in haemoglobin will allow each red blood cell to carry more oxygen to the active tissues
increased tone of smooth muscle tissues (adaptations to cardiovascular endurance training)
largely caused by the regular dilation and constriction of these tissues in the arteriole walls; a greater tone of these tissues will allow arteries to constrict faster and divert blood to the active tissues at an increased rate. stronger blood vessels are also able to withstand higher blood pressures
increased capillarisation (adaptations to cardiovascular endurance training)
this affords a greater blood and oxygen delivery to the mitochondria which are primarily responsible for burning the fats, glucose/glycogen and amino acids; a process that is facilitated by the increased presence of oxygen
increased size and number of mitochondria (adaptations to cardiovascular endurance training)
= greater quantities of fats, glucose/glycogen and protein to be burnt to generate ATP
increased aerobic and anaerobic enzymes (adaptations to cardiovascular endurance training)
the chemical reactions that take place within the sarcoplasm of the muscle (fluid component) and the mitochondria rely heavily on enzymes to accelerate them. An increase in the quantity of such enzymes will enable greater volumes of ATP to be generated both aerobically and anaerobically
increased utilisation of fat (adaptations to cardiovascular endurance training)
fat can only be burned aerobically and as the body’s ability to consume and use more oxygen increases, so too does its ability to burn fat
guidelines for cardiovascular fitness
frequency = 3-5 times intensity = 55-90% of MHR or heart rate reserve (HRR) time = 20-30 minutes of sustained activity type = sustained rhythmic and large muscle group exercises like running, cycling, rowing and swimming
guidelines for cardiovascular health
frequency = 5-7 times a week intensity = 50-70% of MHR or HRR time = 30 mins accumulated activity in 10 min bouts or more type = walking, gardening, general daily physical activities
moderate intensity activities
raking leaves washing windows walking dancing volleyball gentle cycling
vigorous intensity activities
swimming basketball shovelling snow stair walking/stepping running skipping
physical activity
any bodily movement that brings about a significant increase in energy expenditure
current UK guidelines for physical activity
accumulate 30 mins of moderate physical activity 5-7 days a week - each bout should last a min of 10 mins
resistance training intensities
the magnitude of resistance, along with the type and manner in which the resistance is applied will significantly affect any adaptation that takes place.
responses to training
responses to exercise represent the almost immediate and transient consequences of exercise to make it better able to cope with physical demands being imposed on the body at that time. these responses are sometimes referred to as acute adaptations. these responses, which affect all the bodily systems, take place simultaneously to improve physiological output
- these short term effects are brought about by the body to allow it to cope with the physical demands of the activity in that moment. they reverse almost immediately post exercise
adaptations to training
when the physiological systems within the body are stressed, as is the case during a sufficiently intense bout of exercise, that system responds by making a series of structural and functional improvements known as adaptations which seek to make the system more efficient and better able to cope with similar stresses in the future.
the long term effects are usually of an anatomical, physiological and structural nature and aim to improve the body’s resilience to that specific type of exercise/activity so that next time it can come with an equivalent stress more efficiently
general adaptation syndrome
- a primitive survival mechanism that ensures the human body is able to adapt to the demands of its environment.
- this mechanism is fundamental to how training adaptations are realised
- the mechanism of adaptation may also be referred to as the ‘supercompensation’ response
general benefits of resistance training
- can improve everyday function like lifting, carrying and climbing stairs
- can improve both static and dynamic pressure because creates a greater awareness of body position
- helps with muscular imbalances
- stress to connective tissues = joint stability increased = increased athletic performance, less injuries
- reduced lower back pain
- increased calcium deposition = increased bone density = lowered risk of osteoporosis
- altered shape of body = increased self esteem and confidence
- increased lean tissue = higher metabolic rate
general benefits of flexibility training
- maintaining good posture
- when a joint can move freely through large range of motion, there is less chance the muscles crossing that joint are likely to tear or strain = reduced risk of soft tissue injuries
- reducing tension post exercise can help promote a greater sense of relaxation and reduce physical stress
- important for recovery process
- removal of waste products that accumulate during exercise, esp lactic acid
