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PSYC midterm 2 > Action > Flashcards

Action Flashcards

1
Q

What is action

A

Change in the environment

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2
Q

3 types of actions

A

Somatic:
Autonomic
Actions internal to the CNS

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3
Q

Example of somatic action

A

Skeletal muscles: move limbs

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4
Q

Example of autonomic action

A

Smooth muscles: change blood pressure, digest food
Cardiac muscles: heartbeat
Endocrine glands: secrete hormones
Exocrine glands: secrete sweat, saliva, etc..

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5
Q

Actions internal to the CNS

A

Update memory, switch tasks, etc…
Update path you take to school → update your address in your memory → action in brain

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6
Q

Problem solved by action

A

How to effect change in the world

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7
Q

Importance of action

A

Necessary to achieve goals (eat, drink, reproduce, survive, etc…)

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8
Q

Challenge of action

A

The inverse problem: determining what actions to take in order to achieve goals
Working from the goal backwards

We are hungry (goal) → have to figure out what actions to take to get there

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9
Q

Where is supplementary motor cortex located relative to primary motor cortex and premotor cortex

A

rostral to primary motor cortex and dorsal to premotor cortex

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10
Q

Motor system hierarchy

A

Start off with a high level goal and work your way down to which specific muscles to activate → opposite from perception

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11
Q

What does the motor equivalence writing task show

A

pattern/form of strokes were mostly the same between conditions

Using the same upper levels of hierarchy and replacing the lower ones

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12
Q

Inverse model of motor control explained

A

Current position & desired position → motor commands

Start with goals then determine what to do to end up there

Used to create a motor plans

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13
Q

Do we usually do the inverse model or the forward model first

A

Use the inverse to formulate plan then use the forward model to evaluate it

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14
Q

Forward models of motor control explained

A

Current position & motor commands → predicted position

Given where my hand is now and the muscle movements I’m going to take → where is my hand going to end up

Used to evaluate motor plans and/or actions
Know what the results should be and compare that to what actually happened

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15
Q

Explain how the inverse and forward model connect and provide the steps

A

Start with a desired behaviour and use the inverse model to get a motor command
A copy of that motor command gets send to a forward model which takes motor command and current state to predict what will happen

Can compare what actual happened to what we predicted

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16
Q

What is an efferent copy

A

internal copy of a motor command

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17
Q

What is feedforward control and an example

A

Motor command sent to muscle
Faster, but less accurate
Uses inverse model
Have a desired state and come up with a motor common send it to the muscles and hope that it works
Removing hand from hot pot or throwing a ball

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18
Q

What is feedback control and an example

A

Motor command sent to muscle
Actual state compared to desired state
Adjustments made based on errors
Catching a ball
Picking up a coffee cup
Slower, but more accurate
Uses inverse and forward model

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19
Q

Does the feedback control have feedforward within it

A

Yes

Compares what happens to what we wanted to happen

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20
Q

Does feedforward control use inverse or forward model

A

Inverse

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21
Q

Does feedback control use inverse or forward model

A

Both

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22
Q

What is the function of the premotor cortex

A

Involved in selecting goals and planning actions at a conceptual level
- want to quench thirst so we need to drink from a cup

involved in motor planning

Particularly when plans are driven by external stimuli → picking up a cup to quench thirst

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23
Q

What area is involved in the highest level of motor planning

A

premotor cortex

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24
Q

What is motor planning

A

Planning of voluntary actions begins at a conceptual level based on goals

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25
Q

What is the readiness potential and its use

A

Planning in premotor cortex (contralateral hemisphere) occurs before voluntary movement

activation precedes awareness

You could guess what hand someone will move before it does by looking at which hemisphere is activated

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26
Q

How can we plan for multiple actions

A

We can come up with an initial motor plan for both actions if we aren’t sure what we are going to do yet

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27
Q

Planning for multiple actions experiment

A

Spatial cues: Monkey is cued with two possible targets (red & blue)
Memory period: Cues are removed, monkey seems to prepare both actions → remembers both
Color cue: Monkey is cued with actual target, and now prepares single action → you will be doing red action
Go signal: Monkey initiates action

Monkey brain shows activation for both motor plans

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28
Q

Function of mirror neurons

A

neurons in premotor cortex represent actions at a conceptual level → represents abstract idea of breaking a peanut

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29
Q

Mirro neuron experiment

A

Record a money performing different tasks with a peanut: Breaking a peanut, Watching and hearing someone else break a peanut, Watching someone else break a peanut, Hearing someone else break a peanut

Neuron fire in all cases because thee neurons represent the abstract idea of breaking a peanut

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30
Q

Function of supplementary motor cortex

A

Involved in selecting goals and planning actions at a conceptual level

Particularly when plans involve internally generated sequences of actions
- tying shoes
- Playing a song on the piano
- dancing
- pitching a baseball

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31
Q

Results from recording SMA neuron during different motor sequences

A

Fires in anticipation of a particular sequence → push turn pull sequence but not the push pull turn sequence

fire before a particular action in a particular sequence → fires before the push action in the pull, push, turn sequence

This neuron fires before the third action in every sequence

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32
Q

Learned vs cued sequences when SMA is inhibited

A

Unable to perform learned sequences from memory without SMA

Without the SMA the animal could perform the action when it was told which action to perform at each step

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33
Q

Function of primary motor cortex

A

represents directional movements of body parts, not specific muscle actions
Move arm forward

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34
Q

Difference between SMA and premotor cortex

A

SMA handles learned sequences of action
Premotor cortex handles cued sequences

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35
Q

Where do signals from motor cortex travel

A

Signals from motor cortex travel directly to lower motor neurons and lower circuit neurons in brainstem and spinal cord → synapse on other side of the body

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36
Q

Where is the primary motor strip located

A

back of frontal lobe –> pre central gyrus

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37
Q

How are motor and somatosensory maps similar

A

Each hemisphere of cortex controls the contralateral side of the body
Bottom of body is represented at the top
cortical magnification is shown in both

38
Q

What part of the cortex is involved in directional selectivity

A

Primary motor cortex

39
Q

Is directional selectivity based on a visual cue

A

No, it is about the direction of movement

40
Q

Explain what a tuning curve for directional selectivity represents

A

Plot average response rate for different angles of movement for a single neuron

It is quite broad –> → doesn’t only fire to movement in 180 degree direction

41
Q

How do we create a population vector from tuning curves and what do the length and direction of the lines mean

A

Record two neurons, which each have a tuning curve → combine the representation

Direction of vector is determined by preferred direction
Length represents how much it is firing

When we add them together, the resulting vector points in the direction the animal moves

42
Q

What does a population vector do

A

Accurately represents actual movement direction for multiple neurons by adding up the individual vectors

43
Q

Is the motor cortex involved in planning

A

Still plans for directional movement a bit

44
Q

Do population vectors represent motor plans?

A

Yes
If a cue is presented to the animal, After 100 or 200 ms the population vector starts to form in motor cortex → animal hasn’t move yet

The direction of the population vector predicts the direction of the forthcoming movement

45
Q

Function of basal ganglia

A

Motor intentions
Help to select, initiate, and
inhibit movements through
cortico-basal ganglia-
thalamocortical loops

Critical to dopamine-based reinforcement learning (learning when to act from
reward)

46
Q

What kinds of control do the cortico-basal ganglia-thalamocortical loops participate in

A

Participate in motor control, cognitive control, and emotional control

47
Q

Path of cortico-basal ganglia-thalamocortical loops

A

Start in the cortex, pass through the basal ganglia, then the thalamus and back to the cortex

48
Q

Direct pathway in cortico-basal ganglia-
thalamocortical loops

A
  1. Cortex
  2. Striatum
  3. Globus pallidus pars interna (GPi)/Substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr)
  4. Thalamus
  5. Cortex
49
Q

Indirect pathway in cortico-basal ganglia-
thalamocortical loops

A

Cortex
Striatum
Globus pallidus pars externa (GPe )
Subthalamic nucleus (STN)
Globus pallidus pars interna (GP i)/Substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr)
Thalamus
Cortex

50
Q

Baseline activation in cortico-basal ganglia-
thalamocortical loops

A

Before the direct or indirect systems are engaged, the GPi/SNr have high tonic (baseline) activity, inhibiting thalamus → thalamus has little output to cortex

51
Q

What pathway does action initiation use in cortico-basal ganglia-thalamocortical loops

A

Direct pathway

52
Q

What pathway does action inhibition use in cortico-basal ganglia-thalamocortical loops

A

Indirect pathway

53
Q

Action initiation steps in cortico-basal ganglia-thalamocortical loops

A

Direct pathway:

  1. Motor plan forms in motor cortex
  2. Motor cortex excites striatum
  3. Striatum inhibits GPi/SNr → lowers their tonic firing rate
  4. GP/SN disinhibits thalamus → less inhibition
  5. Thalamus excites cortex → increases activity of motor cortex until it generates the action

This aids selection and initiation of action

54
Q

How do we determine if we are going to activate the indirect or the direct pathway of the cortico-basal ganglia-thalamocortical loops

A

Reinforcement learning

55
Q

Action inhibition steps in cortico-basal ganglia-thalamocortical loops

A

Indirect pathway:
1. Motor cortex excites striatum
2. Struatum inhibits GPe
3. GPe disinhibits STN
4. STN excites GPi/SNr
5. GPi/SNr reinhibits thalamus
6. Thalamus tells motor cortex “not yet”

More steps in indirect pathway make it slower to act than direct pathway

Happens when you need to wait for a go signal

56
Q

How does reinforcement learning work in the cortico-basal ganglia-thalamocortical loops

A

Unexpected rewards generate dopamine signals from the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) to the striatum

Dopamine release excites the direct pathway (via D1 receptors) and inhibits the indirect pathway (via D 2 receptors)

This allows modification of behavior based on reward → more based on something that is better than expected

57
Q

What happens when you damage the cerebellum

A

movement isn’t as smooth/coordinated

58
Q

Does the cerebellum have white matter and grey matter

What about sulk and gyri

A

yes

Grey matter on the outside

59
Q

What types of cells are found in the cerebellum

A

Granule cells: 50 billion (¾ of all neurons in the brain)
Purkinje cells: 200 000 inputs per cell → lots of dendrites -> lots of connections

60
Q

Function of cerebellum

A

Critical to performing movements in a smooth and coordinated way

61
Q

How is the cerebellum involved in motor coordination

A

Uses forward model to predict results of motor commands (implement feedback control)

Uses differences between actual results and predicted results for:
Online error correction → tweak it as we go
Motor learning → next time it will be better from the beginning

Feedback control to make movements better

62
Q

How does the cerebellum compare our actual actions to our predicted actions

A

Motor command in primary motor cortex gets sent to spinal cord so that you can execute it → efferent copy of command goes to cerebellum

Something happens from taking the action and meanwhile the cerebellum uses forward model to predict what should happen next

These two things are compared → if there is an error → it gets sent back through the thalamus to primary motor cortex to make adjustments

63
Q

Is feedback control fast and is it accurate

A

Feedback takes time
The faster you go, the less time you have for feedback → Less feedback leads to greater error
This implies a speed/accuracy tradeoff

64
Q

What does Fitts’s law describe

A

describes the speed/accuracy trade off for pointing motions

65
Q

What does the T, a , b , w, and D represent

A

Time, T, for pointing motion depends on:
Distance to target, D
Width of target, W
Initiation time for limb, a
Relative pace of limb, b

66
Q

If you want to reach the target in less time what would happen to W

A

target would have to be wider –> less accurate

67
Q

If you want to reach a narrower target what would happen to T

A

T would increase –> less speed

68
Q

What would happen if you increased D in fits law. What about decreased D

A

increased D would be faster and decreased D would be slower

69
Q

How is the cerebellum involved in cognitive coordination

A

adding numbers in your head, figuring out your next move in chess playing chest

70
Q

Where do primary motor cortex axons go to?

A

Axons from primary motor cortex synapse directly on lower motor neurons and local circuit neurons → crosses over

71
Q

Can the spinal cord generate movements on its own?

A

yes

72
Q

What is a lower motor neuron

A

cell body in spinal cord and axons travel out to the muscles

73
Q

What is local circuit neuron

A

in spinal cord but doesn’t synapse on muscle → figures out which muscles are going to be active

74
Q

Is the brain involved in the patellar reflex

A

No

75
Q

What is the flexor withdrawal reflex circuit used for

A

Shifting weight if you step on something sharp

76
Q

Is conscious control (inhibition) of a flexion reflex possible:

A

Yes, if the intention not to respond was prepared in advance, so that a signal could be sent to the reflex pathway in the spinal cord before the stimulus occurred, thus inhibiting the reflex when the stimulus did occur

77
Q

What are central pattern generators

A

Local circuits in spinal cord:
Can control complex movements → walking
Can respond to environmental changes
Do not require higher-level input
Still need brain to tell you when to start

78
Q

Central pattern generators experiment explained

A

Movement is still possible following resection (cut) of the spinal cord before the hind legs → no signals from brain getting to hind legs
Circuitry exists within the spinal cord to move the legs

79
Q

How are muscles activated

A

Lower motor neurons synapse directly on muscle fibers
Release of neurotransmitter causes muscle fibers to contract

80
Q

What are muscle spindles

A

Muscle spindles (sensory cells) detect changes in muscle length and send them back to spinal cord via dorsal root ganglia

81
Q

Does one axon only innovate one muscle fibre

A

One signal axon can innervate many muscle fibres → cause them to contract
For limbs with finer motor control, each motor neuron innervates fewer muscle fibers → leads to cortical magnification

82
Q

How is multi unit recording done in an awake animal

A

Electrodes implanted in brain and a mount is on the head → plug into the mount

record the brain activity of the animal

83
Q

What is intracellular electrical recording

A

Electrode into individual neurons → in vitro
Voltage clamp/Current clamp
Patch clamp

84
Q

What is extracellular recording and single unit vs multi-electrode recording

A

Electrode adjacent to individual neurons
Records field potentials

Single-unit recording → record from a single neurons
Multi-electrode recording → record from lots of neurons simultaneously

85
Q

How is the spatial and temporal resolution for single unit or multiunit recording:

A

Great spatial resolution →
Because you are recording from a single neuron
Great temporal resolution → when activity occurs

86
Q

Challenges to single unit or multiunit recording

A

How to find “right” neurons
How does this neuron relate to other 100 billion neurons?

87
Q

What are some of the larger considerations of animal experimentation

A

Pain and suffering
Lack of consent
Killing living creatures
Interspecies differences (Fruit fly, Mouse, Macaque)
Benefit to humanity
Necessity for knowledge

88
Q

Example of a brain-machine interface

A

Reach and grapes by people with tetraplegia using neurally controlled robotic arm

89
Q

How do we use brain machine interfaces

A

Two microelectrode arrays are implanted into the left motor cortex (in motor strip) to detect neuron signals

Neuron signals pass to connectors, attached to the skull (mount)

Amplified signals are passed to a Brain-machine interface which interprets them and passes them onto the arm

Interface operates robotic arm in real time

90
Q

How do we decode the primary motor cortex activity to use it for the brain-machine interface

A

Can learn the relationship between pattern of neural activity and intended action → use this to convert the motor intentions into commands for the robotic arm

PSYC midterm 2 (6 decks)

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