(Abby) research methods(CP2) Flashcards
what are co-variables
- the 2 variables in correlational study’s which have been measured
what is correlational analysis
- describes the relationship between two co-variables in statistical terms
describe a positive correlation
- where high values on one variable are associated with high values of the other variable or low visa versa
describe a negative correlation
- high variables on one variable is associated with low variables of another variable
define a scatter diagram
- a visual representation of (a graph of) a correlational relationship
how is the strength of a scatter diagram determined
- the straightness of the line of dots
how is the direction of a scatter gram determined
- the slope of the line of the dots
what is a correlation co-efficient
- any number between +1 and -1
- informs us of the strength and direction
what numbers are weak, moderate and strong correlations
weak- 0.0- 0.3
moderate- 0.3- 0.7
strong- 0.7 +
what are perfect correlation coefficients
+1 and -1
what are some strengths of correlational research
- allows the identification of relationships between variables when it is difficult for practical reasons or unethical
- if a relationship between 2 variables is indicated, this can be a starting point for stimulating future research
- it is scientific meaning it tends to be objective and easily replicable using quantitative data
what are some weaknesses of correlational research
- because there is little control over variables it does not allow cause and effect links to be established
- there may be a 3rd unknown variable
- the 2 co variables may not be measured in a valid manner
- correlations can be misused -> huge claims can come from just a relationship
what is the difference between a research method and a data collection technique
- research method doesn’t have an IV and a data collection technique does
define observational research
- focuses on the observation of a persons freely chosen behaviour
what are the 2 types and observational research and define them
- naturalistic -> spontaneously occurring behaviour is studied in its natural setting and the environment has no manipulation from the experimenter
- structured -> some of the variables including the environment are controlled, can be in a lab setting, still aim to capture freely chosen behaviour but the situations may be set up
what are the positives of naturalistic observation
- observers remain covert so behaviour is normal meaning ecological validity is high as results are more generalisable
- gathers all data that would happen in a real life situation so validity is high as data gathered is very rich
- useful for the study of behaviour in situations where ethical considerations prevent manipulation
what are the negatives of naturalistic observation
- remaining hidden can be an issue for researchers, participants may become aware and alter there behaviour, threatening validity
- many extraneous variables meaning replication can be more difficult and lower reliability
- cannot establish cause and effect links
- ethical considerations concerning deception, consent and invasion of privacy and right to withdraw
what are the advantages of structured observations
- allows for more control over the environment which means easier replication and therefore higher reliability
what are the disadvantages of structured observations
- lacks ecological validity as behaviour can be artificial if the participant becomes aware they are in a study
- cannot get a causality between the IV and DV
define participant observations
- observer becoming part of the group being studied with or without their knowledge
what are the positives of participant observations
- potential for more meaningful observations as the observers will have a better understanding, data gathered will be more rich and detailed than any of method
- high ecological validity is likely as people should continue about their business in an everday manner
what are the disadvantages of participant observation
- researcher may get to involved and become less objective, affecting the validity
- lots of ethical issues raised such as deception
what are non-participant observations
- observers that are not part of what is being observed, they may sit apart or may observe via video link or a one way mirror
what are the advantages of non-participant observations
- accuracy of the data is likely to be very high, increases validity
- objectivity will be a lot higher
what are the disadvantages of non-participant observation
- observer may have little understanding of what is happening, lowering validity
- ethical issues raised such as invasion of privacy
what are overt observations
- participants are aware they are bring observed and know all aspects of the study- so fully informed consent has been given
what are covert observations
- participants dont know the observational study is taking place so they dont know they are bring observed
what are the advantages and disadvantages of overt observations
- ad ->there are little ethical issues as fully informed consent has been given
- disad -> participants may act in a more socially acceptable way to try and please the experimenter
what are the advantages and disadvantages of covert observations
- ad -> participants act freely without any influence
disad -> ethical considerations as participants didnt give consent to being observed
what are the threats to reliability in observational research
- researcher effects can lead to low inter observer reliability, meaning that the observers do not use the method of recording in the same way and so their categorisation does not agree
how can we deal with the threats to reliability in observational research
- pilot studies can be used to train observers in the use of recording systems, eventually showing high inter observer reliability
what are the threats to validity in observational research
- internal validity lacks if the behaviour checklist is vague
- observer bias
- subjectivity
how can we deal with the threats to validity in observational research
- clearly operationalise the behaviour
- carefully plan behaviour checklists
-0 use more than one observer
what are the ethical issues in observational research
- cannot give informed consent
- invasion of privacy
how can we deal with the ethical issues in observational research
- give a debrief
- only carry out experiments where participants would expect to be observed by strangers
what is continuous observation
- the observer records every instance of behaviour , only useful if the behaviour of interest does not happen very often
what is time sampling
recording target behaviours for set lengths of time at set intervals
what is event sampling
recording certain behaviour every time it occurs in a target individual or group of individuals throughout the observation period
- behaviours must be decided beforehand
when using quantitative data collection what sampling technique should be used and what is the process after
- event sampling
- then operationalise it
- then sort into categories which are clear and objectively defined and also mutually exclusive
when using qualitative data collection what sampling technique should be used
- continuous behaviour sampling
what is the definition of content analysis
- a research technique for the systematic quantitative description of the content in written, spoken or visual human communication
what are the 2 main sources of qualitative data use content analysis
- the media
- primary research data
what are the 5 steps on content analysis
- 1) research question and hypothesis
- 2) sampling
- 3) coding units - creating the categories
- 4) pilot studies
- 5) collecting the data
describe the role of the research question and hypothesis in content analysis
- shapes the way the research is done and helps in choosing appropriate materials and coding units
describe the role of sampling in content analysis
- the material of interest is first defined
- then the researchers must decide how much of the available information will be analysed
describe the role of coding units in content analysis
- researchers must decide how to categorise the material to be analysed to best answer their research question
- they sort them into different groups such as format and content and ensure they are mutually exclusive
describe the role of pilot studies in content analysis
- researcher needs to become familiar with the types of material likely to appear and improve the system
- need to make sure the categories are objective and not subjective like emotion
describe the role of collecting the data in content analysis
- done in 2 main ways
- record number of occurrences in a particular coding category (frequency counts)
- alternatively coders may rank items
what are the advantages of content analysis
- summarising qualitative data into quantitative data is useful
- external validity is very high because the study is usually of something actually seen/heard/heard by ordinary people in the real world so its more generalisable
- ethical issues are not a major problem as no human participants
- content analysis useful for analysing historical material
what are the disadvantages of content analysis
- a content analysis cannot show cause and effect links
- researcher effects and subjectivity can be high
- the analysis may be limited by an unrepresentative sample of available materials
what is the definition of a case study
- an in depth investigation, gathering highly detailed information of a single individual or small group
what are the strengths of a case study
- concern unique individuals and groups and allow researchers to collect rich and detailed data
- usually deal with unusual cases the data the cases can provide can often trigger further research
what are the weaknesses of case studys
- researchers can struggle to remail objective reducing the validity
- validity also reduced when participants are asked to recall stuff from the past which they might not remember correctly
- many studies are unique and hard to generalise
- cannot be used to establish cause and effect links
- many ethical issues are raised such as invasion of privacy
what is the function of FMRI scans
- detects brain activity
- metabolic activity results in oxyhaemoglobin releasing oxygen and becoming deoxyhaemoglobin
- monitors radio waves
- strong magnetic field produced
what is the function of CAT scans
- examine brain structure abnormalities
- produces 3d structural image
- x-rays are passed through the brain
what is the function of PET scans
- harmless amount of radioactive material injected into patient which bonds to glucose forming a tracer
- brain uses glucose for energy so areas which are most active absorbs the tracer
- radioactive material emits positively charged particles called positrons which are picked up by the scanner
- produces coloured images
advantage and disadvantage of FMRI scans
ad - non invasive imagery
disad- cannot look at activity of actual receptors
advantage and disadvantage of CAT scans
ad- provide extremely detailed coloured images
disad- slight chance of cancer
advantage and disadvantage of PET scans
ad- usually painless
disad- only tells you that the brain is active, not which parts
whats a monozygotic twin
100% identicle twin
whats a dizygotic twin
- non-identicle with only 50% of their DNA in common
what is a concordance rate
- the degree to which members of a twin pair display the same characteristics, expressed as a percentage
what are the strengths of twin studies
- provide the only ethical way of studying the behaviour of people who are 100% genetically identical
what are the weaknesses of twin studies
- MZ twins, being identical, might be treated more alike than DZ twins, they are not comparing like with like which lowers the validity
- no twin study has ever found 100% concordance rates
what are the strengths of adoption studies
- allow the study of children which is usually unethical
what are the weaknesses of adoption studies
- children are placed in adoptive families because of their similarities to that family so researchers cannot assume that the 2 environments are very different
- the sample is not typical of the target population and only certain types of families with certain qualities and abilities may be allowed to adopt
