A2’s Wider Reforms Flashcards
What were the local government reforms? When were they? (A2)
1864:
- Zemstva/elected councils to run aspects of local government, such as roads, health and schools, in rural areas.
- Electoral system favoured nobles.
- Appointed professionals such as teachers and doctors.
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1870:
- Extended to take in town councils.
What were the judicial reforms? When? (A2)
1864-1865:
- Simplified court system.
- Independent, salaried judges.
- Courts open to press and public.
- Trial by jury for criminal cases. Evidence and witnesses can be challenged.
- JPs for smaller cases.
- Separate peasant courts.
What were the military reforms? When? (A2)
1861-1881:
- Universal conscription for all classes. Students could defer their service (upper classes).
- 15 years of service. 6 active, 9 in reserve.
- The administration of the army was reorganised into 15 military districts with more autonomy given to district commanders. Made it easier to bring in the reserve during war.
- Officer training overhauled. Specialised military colleges and meritocracy. Non-nobles admitted, promotion available to them.
- Slow introduction of modern trifles and artillery.
- Fewer punishments could result in corporal punishment. Flogging abolished.
- Conditions improved for ordinary soldiers. Housed in barracks.
What were the successes and failures of the local government reforms? (A2)
Successes:
- Improvements brought to areas in which they operated: healthcare, education, roads etc.
- Glimpse of political representation.
- Professional third element developed self-esteem. Made demands for reform and improvements in living conditions.
Failures:
- Limited number of provinces covered, slow to get going.
- Corruption in nobles who dominated the councils, did not take their posts seriously. Some vetoed certain decisions.
- Restricted powers of taxation, struggled to raise taxes.
- Peasants did not really participate. Put off by nobility.
What were the successes and failures of the judicial reforms? (A2)
S:
- Fairer trials, especially through JPs.
- Less corruption as court proceedings were public.
- JPs courts were quick, free and fair. Respected by workers and peasants as they defended small people against local officials.
- During the 1860s and 70s an independent and articulate legal profession came into being to fulfill the roles of prosecutors and defenders, trained in the skills of argument and persuasion. Some later joined the Dumas.
- The court enabled free speech which could go against the regime.
- Vera Zasulich for example was subject to a jury who went against the regime, acquitting her. They would not let this happened again.
F:
- Separate courts for peasants.
- Church courts and military courts remained outside the system.
- Government officials could not be tried in the system.
- Revolutionaries tried by special courts in the 1870s.
- Bureaucracy still intervened so trial by jury could not always be guaranteed.
- Largest impact in large cities.
What were the successes and failures of A2’s military reforms?
S:
- Attempt to institute meritocracy, break down class privilege.
- Smaller, more professional army.
- Less brutal and class-ridden.
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F:
- High proportion of nobility among officers. AIII restricted entry to officer training to nobility again.
- Still nepotism, to maintain loyalty as a professional army would threaten stability of regime.
- Changes opposed by nobility who did not want to mix with the other classes.
- Still heavily relied on illiterate and uneducated peasant conscripts. Reduced effectiveness of their training.
When were A2’s educational reforms? What did they do?
1863-4:
- In the first decade of A2’s rule the number of pupils roughly doubled. New, more open, primary schools were built.
8000 -> 25000 primary schools between 1856 - 1878. 1 million pupils in attendance.
- Secondary schools open to all classes and numbers doubled in the 1860s. Wider curriculum, choice of whether to study classics or more modern subjects.
- Higher education overhauled, constraints relaxed. Universities regained the right to govern themselves, choose their professors and students, and design courses.
- Women could attend courses but not complete degrees.
- 50% of professors left their post between 1854-1862. Often replaced by liberal thinking ones.
- 1865 -> 1899, student numbers grew from 4,000 to 16,000.
What were the successful/unsuccessful consequences of A2’s educational reforms?
- More literate peasantry with higher aspirations.
- The Tsar accepted the need for well-educated peasants to develop a modern state, however he did not want this to come at the cost of them criticising the regime. Students became more independent and began to play a larger role in society.
- Mutual aid groups formed, the poorer students banded together to share libraries, kitchens etc. Reacted against poor teaching, strict regulations and heavy-handed policing by forming radically thinking study circles which led to protests and unrest.
When were A2’s censorship reforms? What did they do?
Early 1860s:
- Newspapers, books and periodicals no longer had to submit to prior censorship (preventative censorship).
- Newspapers could discuss government policy and editors were given more freedom.
- The ministry of the interior retained the ability to withdraw any publication they deemed as dangerous. Could enforce fines/force people to shut down.
- Public opinion took a more well-defined shape.
