A2 - issues and debates Flashcards
What is the definition of universality?
the idea that any conclusions drawn about an underlying characteristic of human beings can be applied to all people, anywhere, regardless of time or culture i.e. despite differences of experiences and upbringing
What is the definition of bias?
when considering human behaviour, bias is a tendency to treat one individual or group in a different way from others, which creates a distorted view of the world
what is the definition of gender bias?
a type of bias where psychological research or theory may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience of men and women (usually women). It is the differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real differences
what is the definition of alpha bias?
psychological theories/research that exaggerate or overestimate differences in between the sexes. Such differences are typically presented as real and enduring, fixed and inevitable. They may enhance or undervalues members of either sex, but typically undervalue females
what is the definition of beta bias?
Psychological theories/research that ignore, minimise or underestimate differences between the sexes. This often occurs when females are not a part of the research process and then it is assumed that research findings apply equally to both sexes
what is the definition of androcentrism?
androcentrism = male centred
When research is done with only male samples, ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard. This means that female behaviour that deviates from this often judged to be ‘abnormal’, ‘different’, ‘inferior’ or ‘deficient’ by comparison.
implications of gender bias
- misleading assumptions and fail to challenge negative stereotypes
- female behaviour being misunderstood and misrepresented
- scientific ‘justifications’ to deny women opportunities
- damaging consequences in society
AO3 bias in research methods
gender
For example, Rosenthal found male experimenters are more pleasant, friendly and encouraging to female pp’s than male. The result was that men did worse on that lab experiments disadvantages women as findings tell us little about experiences of women outside in the world e.g. metal analysis noted that studies of women and men were judged as more similar styles of leaders than in lab settings
E - these criticisms suggest they are serious issues with the way data is collected
Feminist psychology to counter androcentricism AO3
P - A positive outcome from the identification of gender bias is feminist psychology, which aims to redress the imbalances in psychological research and theories.
E - This identifies socially determined stereotypes contribute more to perceived differences than biologically exist. Therefore, facts about gender need to be revised in order for social change to take place. Although evidence may have arisen from biased research, that claim female inferiority, it can still be used to benefit women.
For example, claims that women are likely to be less effective leaders than men, should be used to develop training to improve opportunities for female leaders.
This demonstrates how feminist psychology can develop greater equality.
What is cultural bias?
the tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of ones own culture which leads to misinterpreted behaviour
what is ethnocentrism?
the use of our own ethnic group as a bias for judgement about other groups. Belief in superiority of ones own culture
- other groups are seen as deficient or underdeveloped if they are different
examples of cultural bias from other topics
Ainsworth’s strange situation - American sample
Van Ijzendoorn - used 50% American countries
what is cultural relativism?
The idea that a behaviour can only be properly understood/only has meaning/only makes sense in the context of the norms and values of the society or culture in which it occurs
What is EMIC research?
A study that researches one culture alone to understand cultural specific behaviour
research that fully studies one culture with no (or only a secondary) cross-cultural focus.
What is imposed ETIC research?
research that studies cross-cultural differences
Ainsworth did this as she imposed ideas and ways of measuring attachment from outside the culture she was studying and assumed they were the same everywhere
Negative consequences of cultural bias in research
AO3
reinforce stereotypes
P - a danger is that culturally biased research helps to reenforce stereotypes
E - assumptions from studies may be that differences between cultures are due to nature or genetically inherited factors and then be labelled with an incorrect stereotype
E - an infamous example of the damage was the US army IQ test used just before the first world war. The test showed European immigrants fell slightly below white Americans and had profound effects on the attitudes held by Americans towards black people or from South eastern Europe
L - therefore, consequence was enduring stereotypes concerning certain ethnic groups and their IQ’s
Issues with methodology leading to cultural bias
AO3
P - the issue of cultural bias is also evident in research methods, findings and publishings
E - research published in a European text book on social psychology found that 66% of the studies were American, 32% European and 2% from the rest of the world. Another study in 2010 found that 67% of the participants were American psychology students too
L - This produces results that can’t be generalised
Way to challenge ethnocentrism (AO3)
P - one way to counter ethnocentrism is to take an EMIC approach to the research. This could be achieved with the use of indigenous psychologies; using specific theories for different cultures
E - For example, afrocentrism emphasises the uniqueness of African culture, black people should have theories that reflect their African values. Theories derived from European studies may be irrelevant to Africans and even devalue them
E - taking an EMIC approach gives the opportunity to study behaviour from the viewpoint of the relevant culture
L - this has resulted in the development of theories that are more relevant for specific cultures such as those with African decent
what is the order of the approaches from nature to nurture?
biological
psychodynamic
cognitive
humanistic
behaviourist
how is the biological approach ‘nature’
focuses on heredity, hormones, chemicals, though interaction with environment is acknowledged
how is the psychodynamic approach nature/interactionalist?
basic instincts such as sex and agression drive behaviour but relationships with parents are an important factor
how is the cognitive approach interactionalist?
innate information processing abilities are constantly refined by experience
how is the humanistic approach interactionalist and nurture?
it accepts the influence of basic psychological needs but the focus is on the person’s experience of their own environment
how is the behaviourist approach nurture?
the mind is a blank slate at birth. behaviour is determined by learning experiences in the environment
How is the diathesis-stress model interactionalist?
suggests that psychopathology is caused by a biological/genetic vulnerability (diathesis) which is only expressed when coupled with a biological or environmental trigger (stress)
example of nurture in the syllabus?
Bowlby’s monotropic theory
example of nature in psychology
social learning theory of attachment
Supporting evidence that nature-nurture cannot be separated
phenylketonuria
P - trying to separate nature and nurture is not possible
E - Donald Hebb argued that they both contribute. A classic example of this is the disorder phenylketonuria, an inherited disorder that prevents the break down of certain amino acids, resulting in brain damage. If the condition is detected at birth, infants can be given diets and brain damage is avoided
E - this highlights the importance of an interactionalist approach
supporting evidence that nature and nurture work together - concordance rates
P - another way of showing nature and nurture both play a role in humans is by looking at concordance rates
E - when investigating family and twin studies in identifying OCD, it was found that those with a first degree relative with OCD had 5 times greater risk of them having the illness themselves.
A metal-analysis of 14 twins also showed identical twins who share DNA are twice as likely to have OCD than non-identical twins
E - this demonstrates there is a biological impact yet environmental experiences also play a role since concordance rates are never 100%
supporting evidence that nature and nurture work together - diathesis stress model
P - the diathesis-stress model offers a way to understand nature and nurture
E - This is often used to explain mental disorders such as phobias (biological predisposition) or schizophrenia. A diathesis is a biological vulnerability, such as being born with a certian gene that predisposes a person to developing a disorder.
However, research has shown that not everyone with those genes develop that disorder. Expression of the genes depends on experience in the form of a ‘stressor’ which triggers the condition. Thus, a person’s nature is only expressed under certain conditions of nature
E - this again demonstrates the importance of taking an interactionalist approach
