7 - research methods Flashcards

Question

Issues with deception?

Answer 1

Cost-benefit analysis is subjective Debrief cant always undo harm

Answer 2

participants may feel obligated to continue, especially if there is money

Answer 3

harm may not be apparent until after

Answer 4

may be identifiable even without names e.g. through schools or organisations

Answer 5

there is no universally accepted definition of a public or private place

Answer 6

- when all participants have an equal chance of being selected e.g. names in a hat positives - unbiased, all pp’s have equal chances negatives - need to have a list of all members, time consuming

Answer 7

- recruit those who are easiest and most available e.g. people walking past positives - easy, not time consuming negatives - biased (small population) or only people who don’t work at certain times for example

Answer 8

subgroups are identified and a proportional number of pp’s are taken from each group positives- more representative negatives- very time consuming to identify, select, and contact participants

Answer 9

predetermined system to select people e.g. every 3rd person positives- unbiased and uses an objective system negatives- not truly random unless selected using a random method

Answer 10

advertised in newspaper / notice boards / internet positives - access to a variety of participants e.g. people who read certain papers negatives- biased as some participants are more motivated (volunteer bias)

Answer 11

- identifies potential issues early - tests effectiveness and can make improvements - more likely to get meaningful results - reduces wasted time and money - able to reduce demand characteristics

Answer 12

- experimental methods with a quantitative dependent variable - closed questions - tally of behaviours - content analysis of descriptive material

Answer 13

- open questions and interviews - description of behaviour - descriptive material

Answer 14

- easy to analyse - usually objective - conclusions can be drawn

Answer 15

- over simplifies complex behaviour - closed questions force answers

Answer 16

- reflects complexities and different experiences - encourages description - shows feelings - data isn't restricted

Answer 17

- subjective so it's difficult to draw conclusions - hard to analyse - not as easy to compare results

Answer 18

data collected first hand directly by the researcher

Answer 19

researcher has control over the data very specific so meets the aims of study

Answer 20

- long time to carry out - involves a lot of expenses: designing, recruiting, conducting, and analysis

Answer 21

data collected for a different purpose but is utilised and reused by someone e.g. from government data

Answer 22

- takes less time, equipment and money to access - already been analysed so statistics have been decided

Answer 23

- previous studies and data may not fit the aims of the study

Answer 24

a review of similar studies and combines results to form new results

Answer 25

- increases validity of findings as there is a wide range of participants - if some conclusions are very off, they can be controlled

Answer 26

- research design may vary between studies involved, can't be truly compared - effect size may not be appropriate - invalid conclusions

Answer 27

each condition has it's own group of participants. The scores (DV measurements) for each group are compared.

Answer 28

- natural variations between individuals in each group may affect the DV measurements, making it look as if the IV has had an effect when it actually hasn't control - after the pp's have been recruited, they should be randomly assigned to their groups - they should ensure the groups are similar on average

Answer 29

only one group of participants is used. The group completes both conditions and participant scores in each condition are compared.

Answer 30

problems Doing both conditions may (1)give PPs practice on the task; (2) make them bored or tired; (3) allow them to work out the aim of the study, all of which might affect the DV measurement. (4) Reuse of stimulus material is not possible Control: Divide the PPs into two groups. Half does condition A first, then condition B. The rest do condition B then condition A. DV measurements for the conditions A and B are then compared (counterbalancing).

Answer 31

pairs of participants are selected, who are as similar as possible. One member from each pair completes each condition. The scores for the pairs of participants are compared.

Answer 32

Problem: (1) time consuming; (2) an exact match is rarely possible; (3) if one PP drops out you lose 2 PPs’ data. Control: Members of each pair should be randomly assigned to conditions. However, this does not solve all these problems.

Answer 33

- watching and recording behaviour - natural behaviour in people's natural environment

Answer 34

- study a particular behaviour - study natural behaviour - study behaviour where it would be unethical to manipulate the IV

Answer 35

- pp's are likely to know they're being studied - some variables are manipulated by researcher - may take place in a lab

Answer 36

- observing people in their natural environment - people behave freely and are less likely to know they're being observed - researcher doesn't interfere

Answer 37

participant - observer acts as part of the group being watched non-participant - observer isn't part of the group being observed

Answer 38

overt - 'open' observations where pp's know they are being observed and why covert - pp's don't know they're being observed, observer is 'under cover'

Answer 39

- have high validity: record how people actually behave rather than how they say they behave - capture spontaneous and unexpected behaviour - can be used to measure the DV in an experiment, so are a key method of gathering data

Answer 40

- observer bias is likely as it is difficult to be objective - only observable info is recorded so doesn't provide insight about how people think or feel

Answer 41

- the reader must be able to understand what is being asked - no ambiguity - double negative questions reduce clarity - double barreled questions are bad e.g. do you experience pain AND headaches

Answer 42

- may leaf respondent to be more likely to give a particular answer - hard to stop changing answers for social desirability bias

Answer 43

- it is best to use closed questions with quantative data

Answer 44

1. filler questions 2. sequence for questions 3. sampling technique 4. pilot study

Answer 45

- once you've designed a questionnaire, you can use them for a lot of people, cheaply and quickly - may be more likely to share personal info rather than if they are being interviewed - reduces experimenter bias - no special training needed to conduct

Answer 46

where the participant changes their answers due to the unintentional influence of the experimenter

Answer 47

- can take lots of time to design - can only be filled by people who can read and write - biased due to those willing to fill it in - social desirability bias - not wholly truthful

Answer 48

- predetermined questions - no deviation from schedule or questions - conducted in real time

Answer 49

- it can be easily repeated as the questions are standardised - so easier to compare - easier to analyse than an unstructured interview as answers are more predictable

Answer 50

- if the same interviewer behaves differently on different occasions, there is low reliability and harder to compare - interviewer's may influence the answer given (interviewer bias)

Answer 51

- questions are developed during the course of the interview based on the answers given - may start with predetermined questions - sometimes linked to clinical interviews such as a doctors appointment

Answer 52

- more detailed info can be obtained as the interviewer tailors further questions to the specific response

Answer 53

- requires interviewers with more skill as they have to develop on the spot. So more expensive to train - in depth questions may lack objectivity because of their instantaneous nature

Answer 54

the amount of interest and the presence of an interviewer may increase the amount of information provided

Answer 55

- arms crossed, frowning, yawning etc may discourage respondent from speaking freely - nodding and smiling would encourage

Answer 56

- looking for a relationship between 2 sets of data - most be continuous - uses co-variables rather than IV/DV - numbers relate to behaviour - coefficient is between -1 and 1

Answer 57

a hypothesis that predicts the directions of the relationship or difference

Answer 58

two tailed hypothesis that doesn't predict the direction of the difference/correlation

Answer 59

a hypothesis that states there will be no correlation and the statistics are independant

Answer 60

- procedure can usually be repeated easily and if findings are similar, research is likely reliable - correlations usually have high ecological validity as data comes from natural settings and real life - correlations can investigate trends/patterns in data - do not require manipulation of any variables so less likely to cause ethical issues

Answer 61

- correlation does not show causation - they only show linear relationships not curvilinear - if a casual relationship is shown, it may be due to intervening variables which are unknown variables that can explain why the covariables are links (ice cream sales and crime)

Answer 62

- has a hypothesis - IV isn't manipulated - operationaalise variables - has a plan

Answer 63

1. provides a great deal of rich, qualitative data 2. can be useful as a pilot study for a more structured observation

Answer 64

1. can be difficult to analyse 2. can be a tendency for observers to notice the most eye-catching behaviours which may not be most relevant

Answer 65

- design a type of coding system (behavioural categories) to record pp's behaviour - often made to record how often a type of human behaviours appears - data collected is quantitative

Answer 66

event sampling - recording every time a particular behaviour occurs time sampling - recording observations at specific time intervals e.g. recording identified behaviours every 30 seconds (not including any behaviours outside the interval)

Answer 67

- have another person doing the same observation at the same time then comparing data and results after - +0.8 correlation = degree of reliability inter-observer

Answer 68

same observer does the observation two or more times

Answer 69

- clearly operationalise categories - train observers correctly - pilot studies before

Answer 70

- long tail on the positive side of the peak - the mean is higher than the mode and median

Answer 71

- mean is lower than the mode and median - long tail on negative side of the peak

Answer 72

- quantitative value - represents discontinuous data - no overlap between categories e.g. eye colour, house, marmite opinion most useful = mode

Answer 73

- shows order of values, but the difference between the values isn't fixed e.g. the difference between 1st and 2nd position isn't the same as 2nd and 3rd most useful = mode and median

Answer 74

- numeric, we know the order and exact differences between the values e.g. time in seconds, or distance in cm mode, median, or mean can all be used

Answer 75

advantages - takes into account the exact distances between all the values of the data limitations - can't be used with nominal data - can be easily distorted by one or a few extreme values

Answer 76

advantages - not affected by extreme scores - appropriate for ordinal data - easier to calculate than the mean limitations - not as 'sensitive' as the exact values are not reflected in final calculation

Answer 77

advantages - unaffected by extreme values - useful for discrete data - can be used for category data limitations - not useful when there are several modes - tells us nothing about the other values

Answer 78

- an assessment of scientific work by others wo are experts in the same field - judge the scientific quality of research - enable poor scientific practice, or fraudulent work to be identified and prevented from being published

Answer 79

- assess the appropriateness - check the researches validity - to judge the significance of the research - check if the research is original - provide or suggest recommendations - publish

Answer 80

1. ensure it is high quality research 2. helps allocate research funding 3. contributes to the research rating of university departments 4. spot out fraudulent work

Answer 81

claim that MMR vaccine leads to autism Cyril Burt claimed that intelligence is inherited

Answer 82

- he made up lab assistants who didn't actually exist - made up data

Answer 83

P - there are some issues with peer review E - Although it is very important to prevent false information, it can't solve the issue of already published research. Once it has been published, the results remain in the public view, even if it were found to be fraudulent - therefore, it doesn't ensure information we are exposed to is valid for example Cybil Burt L - this emphasises the importance of the general public to be more critical about research claims and no always to accept them

Answer 84

P - peer review results in a preference for research that goes with existing theory rather than dissenting or unconventional work E - Richard Horton made the following comment 'the mistake is to have thought that peer review was any more than a crude means of discovering the acceptability - not the validity - of a new finding E - Journals should be aware of the damaging effects of such bias

Answer 85

P - it isn't always possible to find an appropriate expert to review a research proposal or report E - This means poor research may be passed on if the reviewer didn't really understand it. Also, reviewers may be bias towards the prestigious researchers rather than the less well known names E - Emphasis the need for rigorous approaches

Answer 86

P - reviewers may have their identity kept a secret E - This aim lets them to be completely honest and objective But, reviewers may use the veil to settle old scores or bury rivals E - to avoid this, some journals favour open reviewing

Answer 87

McCrone report estimated the direct costs of mental health in England is £22.5 billion per year Using drugs rather than psychotherapies provides more economic gain as it helps patients to return back to work sooner

Answer 88

Eye witness testimony research improves crime detection and reduces expenses spent on wrongful arrests

Answer 89

Campaign to reduce drink driving or smoking discussed where attitudes and behaviour was changed making people aware Leads to potential to bring about positive change so people fit into the norm Tax forms

Answer 90

Bowlby's theory on attachment showed the importance of emotional care in early child development. Continuing and ensuring the healthy development of children to become more productive members of society and thus improving world economy.

Answer 91

- to infer differences or relationships between 2 or more groups - helps draw conclusions - test if a difference is significant

Answer 92

0.05 (5%) chance that the result will occur if the null hypothesis is true Use 0.01 in more life impacting research

Answer 93

Number of scores or participants

Answer 94

probability level

Answer 95

A directional hypothesis

Answer 96

A non-directional hypothesis

Answer 97

Data (what level of data? nominal, ordinal, interval?) Difference (difference or relationship?) Design (what experimental design?)

Answer 98

Data = nominal Difference = difference Design = repeated measures or matched pairs

Answer 99

1. Work out the 'sign' - whether the score has gone up or down 2. calculate the value of 's' - add up pluses and minuses and select the smaller value. This is the calculated value 3. Calculate the value of N - the total number of scores excluding any nil scores 4. find critical value of S - using critical values table 5. determine whether results are significant - if the calculated value of S is less than or equal to the critical value of S, it is significant

Answer 100

descriptive - measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and dispersion (range, standard deviation) inferential - used when comparing results with probabilities to decide if results are significant. They can accept or reject null hypothesis

Answer 101

1. level of data must be interval 2. data population with a normal distribution (can't be skewed) 3. similar range and standard deviation (variance of 1 sample should not be more than 4 times the variance of the other

Answer 102

- quantifying qualitative information through the use of coding units - used to statistically analyse verbal or written or visual material

Answer 103

1. decide on sample used 2. read source, identify any themes, break it down into a coding system 3. read again and tally number of times coding unit occurs 4. assess and improve reliability 5. analyse findings through quantitative means e.g. descriptive statistics

Answer 104

- replicable method as coding units aren't open to interpretation - easily obtained materials, no pp's needed - high ecological validity as it observes people in real life settings or communications - allows statistical analysis to be conducted

Answer 105

- observer bias if coding categories are ambiguous - time consuming if carried out correctly - cultural bias where content is interpreted differently - causation can't be established, it only reports data

Answer 106

qualitative way of describing and interpreting data through the use of themes

Answer 107

- impose some kind of order on the data - ensure order represents the pp's perspective - ensure order emerges from data rather than any preconceptions - summaries data so hundreds of pages/ hours can be reduced - enables themes to be identified and general conclusions to be drawn

Answer 108

when finding out people's views, knowledge, experiences, values

Answer 109

1. familiarisation ( get to know the data) 2. coding (look for/ break down data into useful units and codes) 3. reviewing themes ( return to data and compare themes against it to ensure they are a good representation of the data) is anything missing? are these themes really visible? 4. defining and naming themes (formulate exactly what is meant by each theme)

Answer 110

- shows key themes - can extend analysis - high ecological validity - no pp's needed, no problem with availability - replicable

Answer 111

- subjective nature so open to bias from researcher - time consuming

Answer 112

- in depth study of individual, group, event, or institution - involves input from family, and others with contact - findings are organised to represent the individuals' thoughts emotions, experiments and abilities - longitudinal

Answer 113

- rich and detailed qualitative data as it focuses on individual throughout a long time - validity and ecological validity - high for that one individual or group as the research is carried out in their real life setting - avoids practical/ ethical issues - case studies can shed light on aspects of behaviour that couldn't be set up as research

Answer 114

- subjectivity - researcher's interpretation of findings may be different to one another - generalisability - hard to generalise to a wider group - time consuming - often longitudinal studies which are carried out over a long period of time - lack of replication - results can't be validated by other studies since they are so personal and unique

Answer 115

the extent to which a test produces consistent findings every time it is done

Answer 116

1. interobserver reliability - getting another observer to do the same thing and compare the correlation between results (must be over 0.8 to be significant) 2. test-retest - repeat the test with the same pp's at a different time

Answer 117

standardise procedures

Answer 118

- operationalise behavioural categories more clearly - practice using categories so observers can respond more quickly

Answer 119

- reexamine questions and avoid/remove and ambiguity

Answer 120

- interviewer should be trained to avoid asking leading questions - reexamine questions asked

Answer 121

Refers to whether the study or measuring test is measuring what it claims to measure

Answer 122

internal - questions whether the results are due to the IV external - questions whether the results can be generalised

Answer 123

Demand characteristics - cues that communicate the aims of the study to participants Investigator effects - anything the investigator does that impacts the pp's e.g. encouraging them to try harder confounding variables - a variable that changes alongside the IV so it is hard to tell what impacts the DV Social desirability bias - pp's not being completely to show themselves in a more socially acceptable way

Answer 124

Ecological validity - being able to generalise findings to everyday life and making sure the conclusions would be made in a real life situation Temporal validity - ability to generalise a research effect beyond the particular time period of the study Population validity - ability to generalise findings to a wider group of people

Answer 125

Face Validity - looking at something and assessing the extent to which a test or measure appears, on the service, to assess the intended construct Concurrent validity - comparing new procedure with a similar one that has already been done. If scores correlate as a strong positive (0.8+) the test is probably valid

Answer 126

Use a double blind procedure to reduce demand characteristics

Answer 127

Non-participant and covert observations should be used so the observed behaviour would be more natural and valid

Answer 128

- questions should be revised so they are related more obviously to the topic - If concurrent validity is low, remove irrelevant questions - Ensure anonymity - Use filler questions to avoid DC

Answer 129

use the same interviewer to reduce investigator effects

Answer 130

Data collected through direct observation or experiments

Answer 131

researchers should not be influenced by personal feelings, opinions, experiences Remains unbiased High levels of control Not open to interpretation

Answer 132

- the ability to repeat a method - relies on standardised procedures - helps determine validity

Answer 133

- can't be scientific unless it admits the possibility of it being found false - not necessarily true if it hasn't been found false - 'fine tunes' theories to make gradual changes

Answer 134

It is not possible to confirm a theory, it is only possible to disconfirm it

Answer 135

An unidentified set of assumptions and agreed methods within a theory e.g. theory of evolution

Answer 136

Gradually disconfirming evidence accumulates and the dominant theory is overthrown 'scientific revolution'

Answer 137

A theory needs to be a logically organized set of propositions that defines events, describes relationships among events, and explains and predicts the occurrence of events. A scientific theory should also guide research by offering testable hypotheses that can be rigorously tested.

Answer 138

deductive - theory proposed before hypothesis testing inductive - theory proposed after hypothesis testing - important in entirely new research

Answer 139

approximately 150 words of a summary / snapshot of what is covered in the work

Answer 140

literature of previous studies which are relevant

Answer 141

narrowing down evidence / relevant studies

Answer 142

aim and hypothesis summary of which evidence will be used to back up and why

Answer 143

aim depicts what they plan in an experiment to do and a hypothesis states a prediction of the results

Answer 144

1. design 2. participants 3. material 4. procedure 5. ethics

Answer 145

1. summary of findings 2. compare results 3. any limitations and possible suggestions 4. implications in real life

Answer 146

Author A.A. (year of publication) title of work. Location : puublisher

Answer 147

Author A.A. and Author B.B. (date of publication) title of article. Title of journal, volume number, page range

Answer 148

retrieved from 'full website address'

Answer 149

all the research and data collected e.g. consent form, debrief form, questionnaire, diagrams, statistical calculations, raw data

Answer 150

the extent to which the results of a particular test or measurement correspond to those of a previously established measurement for the same construct

Answer 151

the likelihood that a particular event or outcome will occur

Answer 152

when we accept the experimental hypothesis even though the results were actually due to chance (false positive)

Answer 153

when we reject the experimental hypothesis when the results were actually significant (false negative)

7 - research methods Flashcards

(177 cards)