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2 - memory Flashcards

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1
Q

what is capacity in relation to memory

A

how much information can be held in a memory store

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2
Q

what is duration in relation to memory

A

the length of time information can be held in a memory store

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3
Q

what is encoding in relation to memory

A

the form in which the info is ‘written’ into memory stores e.g. acoustic

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4
Q

what did Jacobs (1887) test?

A

capacity of memory
digit span test
443 female samples age 8-19 from london school
students had an average span of 7.3 letters and 9.3 numbers

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5
Q

what did Miller 1956 say

A

he agreed with Jacobs’ research but said it was chunks of info rather than individual numbers
said the 7+-2

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6
Q

AO3 of capacity studies

A
  • findings of Jacobs supports Miller’s claim
  • memory improves with age up to a certain point
  • didn’t take into account other factors
  • size of chunk is not specific so its hard to know how big capacity is
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7
Q

what did Peterson and Peterson find out about duration

A
  • the longer the interval, the less accurate the recall
  • in a 3 second gap, 90% were recalled correctly
  • in a 18 second gap, 2% were recalled correctly
    concluded that short term memory had a limit of about 18 seconds
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8
Q

AO3 of duration studies - letter recall

A
  • low level of ecological validity
  • lab so is artificial
  • no consequences
  • unable to apply results to everyday examples e.g. remember phone number
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9
Q

what are the 3 types of encoding

A

visual
acoustic
semantic

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10
Q

who said that short term memory is primarily acoustic?

A

Baddely

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11
Q

what did Brandimote find?
lalala

A

participants used visual coding for STM if they were given a visual task and were prevented from doing any verbal rehearsals- had to say la la la before recalling

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12
Q

what is said about capacity for long term memory?

A

we have an unlimited capacity and no research has been carried out

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13
Q

What did Bahrick find out about LTM duration

A

we have unlimited duration

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14
Q

Aims of Bahrick’s study

A

Investigate the duration of Long term memory

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15
Q

Method of Bahrick’s study

A
  • 400 people of various ages 17-74 were tested on their memory of classmates
  • 50 photos shown and pp’s had to recall all the names they could
  • then free call - name as many without a prompt
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16
Q

Findings of Bahrick’s research

A

with the pictures
within 15 years - 90% accurate
after 48 years - 70%

free recall
within 15 years - 60% accurate
after 48 years - 30%

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17
Q

Conclusion of Bahrick’s study

A

LTM has a seemingly unlimited duration

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18
Q

AO3 points for Bahrick’s study

A

field study - high ecological validity
validity - don’t know if people looked at books, kept in touch etc.

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19
Q

what did Baddely find out about coding in long term memory
immediately and later recalling sematic or acoustic words

A

immediate recall - problems with acoustically similar words

recalling later - problems with semantics

due to similarity, types of memory were confused and didn’t perform well

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20
Q

AO3 of Baddely’s research into encoding in LTM

limitation

A

P - LTM is normally semantic but not always
E - Frost showed that LTM recall was related to visual as well and Nelson + Rothbart found evidence of acoustic
E - can vary on circumstance

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21
Q

what is the capacity, duration, and coding of the sensory register

A

capacity - large
duration - short half a second
coding - all senses

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22
Q

who came up with the multi store model?

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

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23
Q

strengths of the multi store model

A
  • all results and experiments from LTM and STM for example Baddely
  • influenced many other models such as the working memory model
  • brain scanning evidence supports that there is a difference between STM and LTM
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24
Q

explain what happened with HM

A
  • had his hippocampus removed
  • he couldn’t form new LTM’s but could remember things from before
  • this supports MSM as he had a working STM and could retrieve LTM
  • showing how they are separate
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25
Q

limitations of the multi store model

A
  • over simplifies memory - working memory model shows that memory is divided even further
  • Logie pointed out that STM relies on LTM
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26
Q

describe the multi store model

A
  • senses enter the sensory memory
  • sensory memory is transferred to short term memory
  • rehearsal of STM keeps in in STM or takes it to LTM
  • retrieval of LTM takes memory to STM
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27
Q

what is the main difference between the working memory model and the multi store model?

A

WMM focusses in more detail on the workings of short term memory

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28
Q

who came up with the working memory model

A

Baddeley and Hitch

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29
Q

what does the central executive do?

A
  • direct attention to particular task
  • determines how the brain’s ‘resources’ are allocated tasks
  • ‘resources’ are the 3 sub systems
  • limited capacity
  • data arrives from the senses of LTM
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30
Q

what is the phonological loop?

A
  • limited capacity
  • deals with auditory info and the order of information
    split into 2 stores
    1 - phonological store - words heard
    2 - articulatory process - words heard or seen. silently repeated
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31
Q

what is the visuospatial sketchpad?

A
  • used when planning a spatical task e.g. counting windows on your house
  • visual and/or spatical stored temporarily here
  • capacity is around 3-4 objects
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32
Q

what is the difference between visual and spatical

A

visual - things you see
spatical - physical relationship between things

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33
Q

what did Logie suggest about visuospatial sketchpad?

A

it could be split into two
1 - visual cache which stores info of visual items e.g. form and colour
2 - inner scribe - stores arrangement of objects in visual field

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34
Q

what is the episodic buffer?

A
  • extra storage with limited capacity of 4 chunks
  • integrates info from all other stores and LTM
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35
Q

give strengths/support of the Working Memory Model

A

1) dual task performance by Baddeley shows that there is more than one component to memory
(visual + visual) or (visual + auditory)

2) K.F by Shallice and Warrington - motorbike crash
short term forgetting of auditory info was much greater than visual stimuli
auditory problems were limited to verbal materials such as letters and digits
brain was restricted to just the phonological loop

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36
Q

limitations of the Working memory model

A

1) individual case studies should be used with caution as evidence as the trauma of the brain injury may have altered other aspects of behaviour such as concentration and attention

2) too vague still about central executive
- there are probably more components
- the central executive is the most important aspect but the least understood so reduces the whole credibility of the model - Baddeley

3) LTM is still to simplified like the MSM

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37
Q

how long until something is transferred to LTM?

A

30 seconds

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38
Q

what is a declarative memory?

A

explicit memories which can be inspected and recalled consciously

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39
Q

wat is a procedual memory?

A

implicit and typically unable to consciously recall
happens without thinking

40
Q

what is episodic memory?

A

any events that can be reported from a person’s life e.g. birthday
has 3 sections
1 - specific details
2 - context
3 - emotions experienced

41
Q

what is semantic memory?

A

facts that have meaning and have been learned
shared between many people
knowledge of the world

42
Q

what is procedural memory?

A
  • implicit knowledge of known tasks
  • through repetition or practice
  • e.g. riding a bike
43
Q

support for different types of LTM (AO3)

A

1 - brain scanning techniques such as PET show areas of the brain which are active when different types of LTM are used which is also a limitation on MSM and WMM
- episodic memory is associated with the hippocampus
- semantic relies on the temporal lobe
- procedural is associated with the cerebellum

2 - case of HM suggests a distinction can be made between procedural and declarative memories
- he was unable to make new LTM but could recall pre-existing LTM’s after hippocampus was removed
- supports distinction between procedural and declarative memories

44
Q

Limitation of researching some types of LTM AO3

A
  • research is often conducted on living patients or through post mortem analysis on brain

1) patients with brain damage
- difficult to be certain of exact parts of brain affected until a patient has died
- damage to particular area doesn’t always show what it is responsible for - may be acting as a relay station not the main cause
so
can’t always establish causal relationship between brain part and LTM

45
Q

what is interference?

A

when one memory disturbs the ability to recall another. Might result in distorting or forgetting one or both

46
Q

what is proactive inteference?

A

when something previously learned interferes with new memory trying to be stored
e.g. writing an old password

47
Q

what is retroactive inteference?

A

recent info interfering with something learned a long time ago
e.g. trying to remember an old numberplate but only thinking of current one

48
Q

if there’s a big similarity between 2 pieces of information, what happens with the interference?

A

there is a bigger interference and it is harder to recall correctly

49
Q

is meaningful or meaningless info more susceptible to interference?

A

meaningless

50
Q

what lab experiment helps us understand retroactive inteferene?

A
  • George Muller identified RI effects
  • Gave pp’s a list of nonsense syllables to learn for 6 mins then after an interval, he asked them to recall
  • performance was worse when participants had been given an intervening task
  • this is RI as the later task interfered with previously learned info
51
Q

what lab experiment helps understand proactive interference?

A
  • Benton Underwood showed PI could be equally as significant
  • when pp’s have to learn a series of word lists they do not learn the list of words encountered later on in a sequence as well as the ones earlier on
  • if there were 10 or more lists, after 24 hrs they remembered about 20%
52
Q

limitation of the interference theory
methodology

A

P - methodology
E - most research uses artificial lists, words, etc. so it does not relate to everyday memory
E - Therefore, the research is low in ecological validity

53
Q

limitation of the inference theory
narrow view

A

P - only explains some situations of forgetting not all
E - Special, particular conditions are needed for interference to lead to forgetting such as the info being very similar
E - So, more theories are needed to provide a complete explanation for forgetting

54
Q

Benefits of the inference theory
real world application - ads

A

P - effects of interference when people are exposed to adverts from competing brands within a short time period
E - Danaher found recall and recognition was impaired when pp’s were exposed to 2 different ads spaced over a week
One strategy may be to enhance memory trace by playing an ad multiple times in one day to increase rehearsal rather than spreading it out
E - this shows how interference can help maximise effectiveness of a campaign

55
Q

AO3 of interference theory
people effected

A

P - some people are less affected by proactive interference than others
E - Kane and Engle showed that people with a greater working memory span were less susceptible to PI and vice versa
Another test suggested having greater resources to consciously control processing and counteract PI effects.
E - Highlights the fact that individual differences play a part in how easily people are effected

56
Q

what was Baddeley and Hitch’s research into interference?

A

rugby players on the same team were asked to recall the names of all the teams they had played that season
some had played less due to injury
the more number of games played, the lower the percentage of teams recalled correctly

57
Q

What is retrieval failure?

A

when you cant completely remember a piece of information
on the tip of your tongue

58
Q

what is the encoding specificity principle?

A

the greater the similarity between encoding at event and encoding at the retrieval, the more likely one is to recall original memory

59
Q

What was Tulvin and Pearlstone’s study in 1966?

A
  • pp’s had a list of 48 words and had 3 minutes to memorise
  • they then had to recall the words but half had a cue sheet as well
  • pp’s with free recall remembered 40%
  • pp’s using the cue sheet recalled 80%
60
Q

what are the 2 types of cue-dependent forgetting?

A

1 - context (external environmental cues)
2 - state ( internal cues)

61
Q

what is an example of a study for state dependent forgetting?

A

Goodwin et al 1969
- asked male volunteers to remember a list of words with they were either drunk or sober
- then asked to recall the words 24 hours later when some were sober but others got drunk again
- when info is learned drunk it is better recalled when drunk again

62
Q

what is an example of a study for context dependent forgetting?

A

Godden and Baddely
- tested divers on word recall
- told then a list of words wither on land or under water
- then had to recall then again on land or water
- highest recall occurred when initial context matched the recall environment

63
Q

Supporting evidence of using retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting

AO3

A

P - one strength of using RF as an explanation for forgetting is the extensive research evidence that demonstrates importance of cues for retrieval
E - Lab research such as Tulvin and Pearlstone demonstrated the power of retrieval cues
E - Because much of the evidence has relevance to everyday memory experience, there is high ecological validity

64
Q

Example of smell acting as a powerful retrieval cue

A
  • museum had Viking-like smells around the place
  • 6/7 years after the study a memory test was asked about the museum
  • those exposed to the same smell as the museum recalled more accurate information
65
Q

Strength of using retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting
Real world application

A

P - improves recall of events such as tests and exams
E - Abernethy’s research suggests you ought to revise in the room that you will take your exams in
- Smith showed that just thinking of the room where you did the original learning was as effective as being there
E - Shows how research into retrieval failure suggests strategies for improving real world recall such as eye witness testimonies

66
Q

Limitation of using retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting

A

P - contextual cues do not always work or aren’t always that effective
E - when learning involves more than simple word lists and required complex associations, recall is less likely to be triggered by using single cues
- detailed cues are more likely to be more effective than simple context cues (outshining hypothesis)

67
Q

what is misleading information?

A

supplying info that may lead a witness’ memory for a crime to be altered

68
Q

what is a leading question?

A

a question that suggests to the witness what answer is desired or leads them to the desired answer, either by its form or content

69
Q

what is a post-event discussion

A

conversation between co-witnesses or an interviewer and witness after a crime has taken place which may contaminate memory

70
Q

what are the issues with eye witness testimonies?

A
  1. encoding - dark, quick, shock
  2. retained - decay or modified, interference
  3. retrieving - absence of cues
71
Q

what was Loftus and Palmer’s experiment 1?

A
  • finding out if leading questions can change memory
  • participants were asked to watch a video of a car crash then were asked to estimate the speed of the car
  • they were asked with different verbs e.g. smashed, crashed
  • leading questions changed actual memory of the event
72
Q

What was Loftus and Palmer’s experiment 2?

A
  • shown the same car crash video
  • participants were split into 3 groups a week after and asked ‘did you see any broken glass?’
  • the pp’s who were asked the word ‘smashed’ said yes more to there being glass than those with the word ‘hit’
73
Q

limitation of using eye witness testimonies in real life

AO3

A

P - Loftus’ research suggests EWT is generally inaccurate and hence unreliable, but others have criticised her research for its lack of ecological validity
E - May not represent real life because people don’t take experiments seriously or aren’t emotionally aroused
- Roster et al found that if pp’s believed they were witnessing a real crime, response was more accurate
- means police can avoid asking leading questions when interviewing to gain more accurate results
E - therefore, it is likely that leading questions have less of an effect on recall for real life events

74
Q

real world application of eye witness testimony research

A

P - one strength of EWT is its application to criminal justice system which relies heavily on eyewitness testimonies
E - Psychological research has been used to warn the justice system of problems with EWT. Recent DNA exoneration cases have confirmed the warning of eye witness identification by showing that eye witness mistakes was the largest contributing factor to the conviction of innocent people
E - this demonstrates the important role of EWT research in making sure innocent people aren’t convicted

75
Q

what are conformity effects?

A

when co-witnesses reach a consensus decision dues to conformity

76
Q

what is repeat interviewing?

A

every time a witness is interviewed, comments made by the interviewer may be incorporated in the witness’ memory of the event
Also, leading questions may distort the memory

77
Q

what was Gabbert et Al’s investigation into conformity?

A
  • participants all watched a video of a robbery alone but each from a different angle
  • some pp’s were put in pairs to discuss the details of the crime but others didn’t speak to anyone
  • then everybody was questioned to explain details of the video they watched
78
Q

what was the experimental design of Gabbert’s study?

A

independent group design

79
Q

what were the results of Gabbert’s study?

A
  • 71% who had discussed the event recalled information which was not true or mentioned items which were discussed before hand
  • 60% said she was guilty despite not seeing her actually steal anything
80
Q

AO3 of Gabbert’s study talking about age and population validity

A

P - This experiment may lack population validity as the sample consisted of mostly young university aged students
E - A number of studies have found that elderly people have difficulty remembering the source of their information, even though their memory of the info is unimpaired, leading to misleading testimonies
E - This suggests individual differences, age in particular, are an important factor when assessing reliability of eye witness testimonies

81
Q

what main evaluation points should you use for misleading information for eye witness testimonies

A
  1. real life application - cognitive interview
  2. use of artificial material e.g. films (Loftus)
  3. lack of consequences in lab studies (Foster)
  4. memory for important events is less susceptible to distortion
82
Q

what was the experiment which showed that anxiety has a negative effect on eye witness testimony and how was it tested

A

Johnson and Scott 1976
- asked participants to sit in a waiting room where they heard an argument then saw a man running through the room with either a greasy pen or a bloody knife
- participants were then asked to identify the man through photos

conclusion
- presence of a weapon increases attention to the weapon itself rather than the face

83
Q

what was the experiment which showed that anxiety has a positive effect on eye witness testimony and how was it tested

A

Christianson and Hubinette
- witnesses of real bank robberies in Sweden were questioned about recalling their events
- there were both bank tellers (high anxiety) and customers or other employees (lower anxiety)
- 4-15 months after, robbers were asked to identify the robbers

findings
- 75% generally accurate recall
- the most anxious witnesses had the most accurate recall of all

84
Q

what does the Yerkes-Dodson law say?

A

-lower levels of stress and anxiety also equal lower levels of accuracy of eye witness testimony and performance
- once optimal levels are reached and the witness experiences too much stress the accuracy of eye witness testimony decreases and performance is not as good

85
Q

AO3 of Scott and Johnson experiment
(Pikel)

A

P - one weakness of using the S + J experiment is that is might test surprise rather than anxiety levels
E - Pikel conducted an experiment using scissors (high threat, low surprise), a wallet (low threat, low surprise), a handgun (high threat, high surprise), and a raw whole chicken (low threat, high surprise). EWT was significantly poorer in the highly unusual situations
E - the reason the participants focused on the chicken may be because they were surprised rather than anxious
L - These findings are important because it challenges weapon focus theory by Loftus

86
Q

Ethical issue AO3 of Johnson and Scott

A

P - another issue is that ethical guidelines were broken
E - the pp’s were deceived from the nature of the experiment by not telling the pp’s the aims and then by exposing some pp’s to a bloody knife, this may have caused extreme feelings of anxiety and therefore psychological harm
E - This left an issue as these participants may have left the experiment feeling exceptionally stressed and anxious especially if they had been, or known somebody involved in knife crime

87
Q

AO3 of anxiety experiments - individual differences

A

P - One key extraneous variable in many studies of anxiety is emotional sensitivity
E - In a study by Botwell, pp’s were labeled either stable (less emotional (sensitive), or neurotic (tend to become anxious quickly.) The ‘stable’ pp’s showed rising levels of accuracy as anxiety levels rose however the neurotics showed the opposite
E - this study suggests that individual differences may play an important role in EWT accuracy

88
Q

what are some issues with standard interviewing?

A
  • questions and answer concept
  • leading questions / closed questions
  • interviewer does most the talking
  • predetermined questions
89
Q

what do the problems with standard interviews lead to?

A
  • inaccurate information
  • witnesses likely to withhold info
90
Q

what are the 4 strategies to help recall (cognitive interview)

A

1 - change perspective
2 - mental reinstatement
3 - report everything
4 - change order

91
Q

how does changing perspective help recall in interviews?

A
  • interviewee is asked to recall incident from multiple perspectives
  • this disrupts the effect that schemas have on recall
  • suggested by Anderson and Pichert
92
Q

how does mental reinstatement of original context help recall in interviews?

A
  • recreate both the physical and psychological environment of the original incident
  • questions such as ‘what could you smell’ or ‘how did you feel’
  • Adapted by Dando and Milne
  • aim is to make memories more accessible
93
Q

how does reporting everything help recall in interviews?

A
  • saying an event even if it may seem irrelevant
  • memories are interconnected so saying one may then cue a whole load of new memories
  • small details may piece together from many witnesses to form a clearer picture
94
Q

how does changing the order of events help improve recall in interviews?

A
  • recollections are influenced by schemas
  • if you say things in a different order, it prevents pre-existing schemas influencing what you recall
  • also prevents lying as it is harder to lie in reverse order
95
Q

give a strength of the cognitive interview
AO3

A

supporting evidence
P - one strength of the cognitive interview is the amount of supporting evidence that demonstrates its effectiveness
E - a meta-analysis by Kohnken of 53 studies showed an increase of 34% in the amount of correct information generated in the CI compared with standard interviewing techniques
- However, effectiveness may be due to some individual elements. Milne and Bull found that when pp’s were interviewed using a combo of recalling all and mental reinstatement components. Their recall was higher than just using one
E - this suggests that overall the CI is an effective technique for increasing the accessibility of stored info

96
Q

give a limitation of the cognitive interview
quality and quantity
AO3

A

P - another limitation is that its effectiveness has largely been in terms of quantity of information, rather than the quality
E - the procedure is designed to enhance the amount of correct recall without compromising the quality. Kohnken found an 81% increase of correct info but also 61% increase of incorrect info when enhancing from a standard interview
E - this means police need to treat all information from cognitive interviews with caution as it doesn’t guarantee accuracy

97
Q

give a limitation of the cognitive interview
problems in practice
AO3

A

P - the amount of time and training needed to implement it is hard to make possible
E - from interviews with police, Kebbell and Wagstaff reported a problem with the CI in practice. They suggest that the technique needs more time than is often available and instead, use deliberate strategies aimed to limit an eyewitness report to minimum info
E - these limitations mean that CI has not been wide spread

psychology (12 decks)

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