A2 - gender

Question 1

what does sex mean?

Answer 1

biological factors - fixed, non changing male or female

Question 2

what does gender mean?

Answer 2

the social and physiological characteristics of males and females which are fluid

Question 3

what does gender role mean?

Answer 3

culturally determined male and female behaviours

Question 4

what is a gender schema?

Answer 4

a mental template for gender that changes with experience

Question 5

what does gender identity mean?

Answer 5

a person’s perception of oneself as male or female

Question 6

what is gender dysmorphia?

Answer 6

when a male or female feels they belong to the wrong gender or are confused about their gender

Question 7

what were the aims of Smith and Lloyd’s research?

Answer 7

examine whether adults treat infants differently based on perceived gender

Question 8

what was the hypothesis of Smith and Lloyd’s research?

Answer 8

adults would exhibit gender-stereotyped behaviours when interacting with infants, based on assumptions about their child’s gender

Question 9

when was smith and lloyd’s research?

Answer 9

1978

Question 10

who were the participants in smith and Lloyd’s research?

Answer 10

32 infants, 16 boys and 16 girls between the ages of 5 and 10 month

Question 11

what were the conclusions drawn from Smith and Lloyd’s study?

Answer 11

adults’ treatment of infants is influenced by gender stereotypes, which may encourage the development of sex-differentiated behaviours from a very young age

Question 12

what was the procedure of Smith and Lloyd’s study?

Answer 12

the researchers used a ‘cross dressing’ experiment where the infants were dressed as either boys or girls, irrespective of their actual gender
Adults were then asked to play with the infants and were provided with toys that were stereotypically associated with boys (such as hammer) or girls (dolls)
The adults’ behaviour was observed, particularly which toys they offered to the babies and how they interacted

Question 13

what were the findings of Smith and Lloyd’s research?

Answer 13

adults consistently played with the infants based on the perceived gender of the child
adults also tended to interact more vigorously with babies they thought were boys, and more gently with those they thought were girls

Question 14

Strength of sex-role stereotype research by Smith and Lloyd

Answer 14

one of the first studies to show empirical evidence of how gender roles are imposed on infants from early life

laid the foundation for future research in gender socialisation

Question 15

what is androgyny?

Answer 15

when individuals display equal levels of masculine and feminine traits/characteristics

Question 16

AO1 description of Bem’s BSRI

Answer 16

Bem introduced the concept of psychological androgyny
She tested her ideas by creating a psychological test to measure androgyny - the Bem Sex Role Inventory
there were 40 traits (20 f/m) and 20 neutral items
each person rated themselves on a 7-point Likert scale
given a score for femininity, masculinity, androgyny
categorised as masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated

Question 17

AO3 for androgyny and psychological health

Answer 17

P - research has found a positive correlation between androgyny and psychological health, as Bem predicted
E - For example, Prakash et al. (2010) tested 100 married females in india on masculinity/femininity and a range of outcome measures related to health: physical health, depression, anxiety and perceived stress. Masculinity/femininity was measured using the personal attribute scale (another test used to assess androgyny). Females with high masculinity scores had lower depression scores, etc. whereas those with high femininity scores had higher depression scores, etc.
E - This supports the view that androgyny has a psychoprotective effect, because those with a strong sense of both masculinity and femininity were better off in terms of their health.

Question 18

AO3 - reliability of BSRI (strength)

Answer 18

P - a strength of the BSRI is its high reliability
E - Research has demonstrated high test-retest reliability for the BRI over a four-week period;
correlations range from 76 to .94 (Bem, 1981). A short form of the scale has been developed using just 30 items and has a good correlation of .90 with the original. Having a shorter form improved the internal reliability of the test because the less socially desirable terms were removed, such as ‘gullible and childlike!
E - High reliability is vital for any test to produce meaningful

Question 19

AO3 validity of the BSRI (limitation)

Answer 19

P - The BSRI has been criticised for lacking validity.
E - First, the link between androgyny and psychological health may be due to self-esteem, as socially desirable traits in the BSRI boost self-esteem. Second, response bias may skew results, with some people selecting higher ratings and being classified as androgynous. Lastly, the adjectives, chosen in the 1970s, no longer reflect modern views of gender, making the BSRI outdated.
E - Thus, it lacks both internal and temporal validity.

Question 20

how does sex develop in males?

Answer 20

XY —> androgens —> development of testes —> testosterone —> development of penis and changes to the brain

Question 21

how does sex develop in females?

Answer 21

XX —> development of ovaries —> oestrogen —> uterus and vagina/ changes to the brain

Question 22

outline Klinefelter syndrome

Answer 22

when a boy is born with an extra X chromosome
they are genetically male and some often don’t realise they have the pattern

1 in 660

Question 23

what is the chromosome pattern of Klinefelter syndrome?

Answer 23

XXY

Question 24

what are the physical characteristics of Klinefelter syndrome?

Answer 24

tall
feminised physique
female type pubic hair pattern
small testes
breast development sometimes
poor beard growth
90-95% infertile

Question 25

what are behavioural psychological characteristics of Klinefelter syndrome?

Answer 25

shyness and low self confidence
problems with reading, writing, spelling, and attention
mild dyslexia and dyspraxia
low energy levels
difficulty socialising

Question 26

outline Turner syndrome

Answer 26

female only, when they are born with only one X chromosome

effects 1 in 2000 people

Question 27

what is the chromosome pattern of Turner syndrome?

Answer 27

XO

Question 28

what are the physical characteristics of Turner syndrome?

Answer 28

short
broad chest
webbing of the neck
infertility
potential heart issues

Question 29

what are behavioural psychological characteristics of Turners syndrome?

Answer 29

• challenges in social situations
• anxiety and depression
• ADHD

Question 30

what are features of testosterone?

quadruplet

Answer 30

• triggers the development of male genitalia
• surge during puberty responsible for secondary characteristics e.g. facial hair
• causes ‘default’ female gender to be overridden
• Berebaum and Bailey found that females exposed prenatally to large doses develop more tomboyish behaviour

Question 31

what are features of oestrogen?

quadruplet

Answer 31

• surge during puberty responsible for secondary sexual characteristics, e.g. breast development
• does not direct genitalia development prenatally
• responsible for directing the menstrual cycle
• Shi et al found prenatal exposure can lead to smaller brain size

Question 32

what are features of oxytocin?

quadruplet

Answer 32

• called the ‘love’ hormone as it promotes feelings of bonding
• produced in the pituitary gland
• important in breast feeding as it causes the milk to flow in the lactating mother
• dampens the ‘flight or fight’ response and triggers alternative ‘tend and befriend’ response in females

Question 33

AO3 support for the role of chromosomes and hormones

Reimer

Answer 33

It has been argued that the biological sex is not the main factor in gender development. Money argued that nurture is more important

however, the case of David Reimer who was genetically male, and accidentally had his penis destroyed in circumcision, was subsequently raised as a girl but showed strong male identity. This included female hormone therapy to stimulate female puberty. However, he later revealed that he never felt like a girl and made the decision to revert to a male.

This case study supports the importance of chromosomes and hormones in gender development, rather than the child rearing practices

Question 34

Supporting evidence for the role of hormones in gender development

Monkeys

Answer 34

Quadagno et al (1977) gave testosterone to pregnant monkeys.
he found that female monkeys that had been exposed to high levels of testosterone before birth,
later displayed more rough play and aggressive behaviour, similar to young male monkeys, in comparison to other young female monkeys.
However, applying findings from research with non­human animals has limitations. Human behaviour such as gender development is governed, to an extent by influences from
society and media expectations. Humans also have a greater degree of choice regarding their preferred gender.

Question 35

RWA of research into biological importance in gender identity

Answer 35

In the past, gender assignment and surgery was commonly performed in early infancy for intersex conditions, such as CAH, to make the individual look more normal. Now informed
decisions can be made such as assigning a gender to babies but delaying surgery until the
individual can make an informed choice.
Another application of research is the use of genetic testing. For example Turner’s and Klinefelter’s syndrome can be identified early and hormone therapy could be given.
This is important because psychological research can contribute to therapeutic methods can help make decisions about preferred gender outcomes and quality of life.

Question 36

who was responsible for the three stages in gender development - cognitive explanation
and when

Answer 36

Lawrence Kohlberg 1966

Question 37

what are the 3 stages of gender development according to Kohlberg?

Answer 37

gender identity
gender stability
gender constancy

Question 38

what are the ages for gender identity and what is a brief description of it?

Answer 38

2-3
Label gender as boy or girl depending on what the outward appearance is
e.g. if there is long hair, turns to a girl
is pre-operational - lacks internal logic

Question 39

what are the ages for gender stability and what is a brief description of it?

Answer 39

4-6
acknowledges that gender is consistent over time but not over context/situation
swayed by outward appearance e.g. Piaget’s concept of conservation

Question 40

what are the ages for gender consatncy and what is a brief description of it?

Answer 40

6-7come to realise gender is constant across situations
start to learn about gender - appropriate behaviour before, not relevant as they thought gender may change

Question 41

what does establishing an understanding of gender cause a child to do?

Answer 41

pay more attention to the same sex models and copy them

Question 42

what is self socialisation

Answer 42

copying same sex models independently from gaining rewards from parents

Question 43

Support evidence of the 3 stages by Kohlberg AO3

Answer 43

There is research evidence that supports each of Kohlberg’s three stages.
Evidence for the age of gender labelling comes from Thompson (1975), who found that two-year-olds were 76% correct in identifying their sex, whereas three-year-olds were 90% correct.
This shows an increasing ability to label themselves, as predicted by Kohlberg’s theory.
Gender stability was investigated by Ronald Slaby and Karin Frey (1975). They asked young children questions, such as: ‘When you grow up, will you be a mummy or daddy?’ The answers given by children showed that they did not recognise that these traits were stable over time until they were three or four years old, as Kohlberg predicted.
Gender constancy was also supported by Slaby and Frey. This time they asked a different set of questions, such as: ‘Could you be a boy/girl if you wanted to be?’ They found that children who scored high on both stability and constancy (i.e. they had achieved gender constancy) showed greatest interest in same-sex models.
This suggests, as Kohlberg predicted, that increasing constancy leads children to pay more attention to gender-appropriate models, furthering gender development

Question 44

Limitation of Kohlberg’s theory - age differences AO3

Answer 44

P - Slaby and Frey did find that gender constancy appeared at a younger age than Kohlberg had suggested, as young as 5
E - it is not a direct challenge but ut does suggest adjustments are necessary
E - In the time since Kohlberg first formulated his theory, children’s lives have become very different - for example, they are exposed to different kinds of gender information through the media so consistency may develop earlier
L - therefore, while evidence still supports the sequence, the actual ages may be younger

Question 45

application to boys and girl of Kohlberg’s theory AO3

Answer 45

P - Slaby and Frey found gender differences, in that boys tended to exhibit tender constancy before girls
E - Huston pointed out that it is relatively easy to get girls to take on masculine-type activities but the same cannot really be said for boys who generally resist. This difference can be explained in terms of the social learning theory. The role models that boys identify with are often more powerful (an important part of identification). Therefore, girls are less likely to identify with their role models, as they are less powerful. Furthermore, boys are more likely to be punished for gender-appropriate behaviour than girls and therefore learn gender-behaviour more rapidly

Question 46

Limitation of methodology in Kohlberg’s study AO3

Answer 46

Children as young as 2 were used and they may not have the vocabulary to express their understanding. They may have complex ideas but not have the ability to articulate them. Their answers may not represent their understanding.

Question 47

who proposed the gender schema theory and when?

Answer 47

Martin and Halverson
1981

Question 48

what is the gender schema theory?

Answer 48

children actively construct an understanding of gender roles based on their experiences and societal cues. Their version of the theory emphasises the role of cognitive processes in categorising behaviours, activities, and objects as either “male” or “female,” which shapes children’s perceptions, preferences, and behaviour.

Question 49

what are the key differences between kohlberg’s theory and gender schema theory?

Answer 49

• GST argues that acquiring gender-relevant info begins before gender constance
• schema affects later behaviour based on memory and attention

Question 50

what are in-groups and their role on gender development?

Answer 50

a group that an individual identifies with and serves to increase a child’s self esteem

Question 51

what is the order in the gender schema theory diagram?

Answer 51

gender identity (2-3 yrs)

gender schema (evaluate similarities)

more attention paid to own sex

copy and show gender behaviour

Question 52

what does selective memory and attention have to do with GST?

Answer 52

Children show a strong preference for remembering and paying attention to information that fits their gender schemas. For instance, they are more likely to remember stereotypically gendered activities, such as a girl playing with dolls, while often disregarding or forgetting activities that contradict these norms, such as a boy wearing a dress.

Question 53

support for the role of schema in organising memory (AO3)

Answer 53

Martin and Halverson (1983) found that when children were asked to recall pictures of people, children under six recalled more of the gender consistent ones (such as a male firefighter or female teacher) than gender inconsistent ones (such as a male nurse or female chemist). Furthermore, children appear to pay greatest attention to ingroup rather than outgroup schemas. Bradbard et al. (1986) told 4–9-year-olds that certain gender neutral items, (e.g. burglar alarms, pizza cutters) were either boy or girl items. Participants took a greater
interest in toys labelled as ingroup, (i.e. a boy was more interested in a toy labelled as a boy’s toy).

Question 54

supporting evidence that schemas exist as they distort info (AO3)

Answer 54

In Martin and Halverson’s study, when children were shown consistent or inconsistent (counter-stereotypical) pictures, they distorted the information. For example, when shown a boy holding a gun (consistent) or a boy holding a doll (inconsistent), children then described what they saw as a girl holding the doll. Such distorted
memories search to maintain ingroup schemas and support GST because they show how behaviour can be
explained in terms of schema-related behaviour.

Question 55

limitation of constancy ages linked with schemas (AO3)

Answer 55

Martin and Little (1990) found that children under the age of four showed no signs of gender stability, let alone signs of constancy (which, according to Kohlberg, appears around the age of six). Despite a lack of constancy, the children did display strong gender stereotypes about what boys and girls were permitted to do. This shows that they have acquired information about gender roles before Kohlberg suggested, in line with GST.

Question 56

evidence to show that gender identity can happen even earlier (AO3)

Answer 56

Zosuls et al. (2009) recorded samples of children’s language and observed them at play in order to identify when
they first started labelling themselves as a boy or girl. They concluded that children were using gender labels by
the age of 19 months. However, there is more recent evidence that children show gender-typed preferences
even earlier than this, (i.e. before gender identity), which was seen as a challenge to gender schema theory
(Bandura and Bussey, 2004).

Question 57

what is Freud’s psychoanalytic theory?

Answer 57

formed in the 1890s, emphasises internal drives, particularly sexual urges. Believed children are born gender-neutral and develop their gender identity during the phallic stage (4-5) through the Oedipus or Electra complex

Question 58

what is the Oedipus complex?

Answer 58

a boy desires his mother and feels rivalry and fear towards his father, experiencing castration anxiety. The boy resolves this conflict by identifying with his father, leading to solid masculine gender identity

Question 59

what is the Electra complex?

Answer 59

observed in girls. when they experience love for their mother but her libido is directed to the father, so she is torn between wanting her father’s attention (penis envy) they blame their mother for apparent castration. This is an unconscious process. The electra complex leads to a less secure gender identity for girls

Question 60

what is identification and internalisation in the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 60

both complex’s are resolved through identification with the same sex parent. This results in the superego as well as gender identity.
Identification plays a huge role in creating gender stereotypes
Internalisation is when a child understands how to behave in gender appropriate ways

Question 61

support from case studies for the psychodynamic approach to gender development

Answer 61

P - the only support Freud gave for his Oedipus complex was the case study of a 5 year old boy growing up in Vienna , referred to as ‘little Hans’
E - Hans had a fear of being castrated by his father due to a sexual love for his own mother. This led Hans to express his repressed fear of castration as a fear of horses; the final resolution came when Hans came to identify with his father and no longer wished him dead.
E - Nevertheless, the case study is full of subjective interpretation and selective

Question 62

methodological limitations of the psychodynamic approach to gender development AO3

Answer 62

Freud based his theory on one case study; Little Hans, whose behaviour may have been atypical, his behaviour is unlikely to represent a wider population of boys. Furthermore, subjective interpretation and selective/biased reporting by Freud reduces validity.
The unique nature of case studies means it is difficult to verify or falsify Freud’s theory because the research cannot be replicated.
Empirical testing of unconscious feelings, such as castration anxiety and penis envy isn’t
possible, such unconscious processes cannot be observed and measured directly.
This is especially difficult with young children who may not be able to verbally express their
thoughts and experiences.

Question 63

Limitation of using the psychodynamic approach to explain gender development (predictive validity)

Answer 63

The lack of consideration of family diversity reduces the predictive validity of Freud’s explanation
of gender development.
According to Freud’s theory of gender development, children who are brought up with a single or same sex parents, will have problems acquiring gender identity.
There is no evidence of this. Research conducted by Patterson (2004) concluded no difference in gender identity development or social relationships when comparing same sex parents with heterosexual parents.
This would indicate that gender development doesn’t depend on the Oedipus or Electra complex

Question 64

what are the 4 mediational processes in social learning theory?

Answer 64

attention
retention
reproduction
motivation

Question 65

what is direct tuition is social learning theory?

Answer 65

being explicitly told something or instructions about gender behavioue

Question 66

when is direct tuition influential?

Answer 66

when linguistic skills are developed

Question 67

what is self direction?

Answer 67

once children have internalised gender appropriate behaviour, their own behaviour is not dependant on external rewards or punishments

Question 68

what is the main difference between social learning theory and gender schema theory in gender development?

Answer 68

while Social Learning Theory sees gender development as a process of learning from social cues and reinforcement, Gender Schema Theory emphasises the internal categorisation and mental organisation that children use to interpret and guide their own gender-related behaviour.

Question 69

supporting evidence of social learning theory impacting gender choices AO3

fruit

Answer 69

P - evidence to support attention and modelling comes from Perry and Bussey
E - They showed clips to children aged 8 and 9. In the film, boys and girls were seen selecting an apple or pear, both gender neutral items, when the children were later given the option of fruits, they picked the same as the same sex on the video.
E - this shows that children model gender behaviours they have seen in gender appropriate models

Question 70

Limitation of SLT as an explanation for gender development - direct tuition may be more important

Answer 70

P - the relative importance of different processes of SLT in gender development are not addressed
E - for example, Martin et al found preschool boys played with toys labelled as ‘boys’ toys, even if they saw a girl playing with it before. However they didn’t play with the girl labeled toys even when they saw a boy play with it before.
However, the tuition was weakened when instructors did not practice what they had preached.
E - this suggests direct instruction is more important than modelling, at least for preschool children, but most important when paired with congruent behaviour

Question 71

Limitation of SLT - ignoring biological factors

Answer 71

P - A limitation of SLT to explain gender development is that it ignores biological influences.The role of hormones in the development of masculine and feminine behaviour is not taken into consideration.
E - Margaret Mead found that men in most groups studied in Papua were more aggressive,
regardless of gender roles. In addition research has showed that traits desired in opposite sex partners were similar worldwide.
The role of testosterone on male brain development may explain some ‘boy’ behaviour.
E - There is evidence of some universals in the way men and women behave, so supports a
biological explanation.
L - With evidence of such universal similarities, a biological influence in gender development is an important factor that should be incorporated with social factors to
refine the theory.

Question 72

What did Margret Mead do in 1935?

Answer 72

carried out a detailed ethnographic study by living with various tribes in New Guinea for 6 months

Question 73

What were the findings from the 3 tribes in Margret Mead’s study study in Papa New Guinea

Answer 73

1. Arapesh tribe - men and women were gentle, responsive and cooperative
2. Mundugamor tribe - violent and aggressive, seeking power and position
3. Tchambuli tribe - women were dominant, impersonal and managerial, whilst men were emotionally dependant

Question 74

Limitation of using cultural influences to explain gender development AO3
Biological ignored

Answer 74

The role of biological factors cannot be ignored as many similarities were found across cultures (universals).
Eagly and Wood stress the influence of biological/physical differences that result in differences in the ability to perform certain tasks better.
Child bearing and breast feeding tend to make it more difficult for
women to be absent from the home/child for long periods of time.
Therefore, they are more likely to be based at home. In addition,
men’s upper body strength often results in them doing more hard
physical tasks/roles.

Question 75

Limitation of Mead’s research AO3
Methodology

Answer 75

The findings may be flawed due to the issue of ethnocentric bias.
AO3 ­ Mead’s research ­ limitations

• The researcher’s presence may alter the behaviour of those being studied
• Communication
• The researcher may be misinformed by a translator

Question 76

what did Bussey and Bandura find about the media?

Answer 76

they found that the media provides very clear stereotypes that are quite rigid: men are presented as independant, ambitious and advice givers, whereas women are depicted to be dependant, unambitious and advice seekers

Question 77

what did Ghee and Frues look at and find?

media

Answer 77

Ghee and Frueh looked at exposure to gender representations in the media, they conducted a longitudinal study and found that children aged 6-12 who watched more than 25 hours of TV a week held more sex-stereotyped perceptions than those who watched 10 hours or less. This was especially true for male stereotypes

Question 78

Outline a Canada study of media influence by Tannis Williams

Answer 78

In the 1970s, a valley in Canada was surrounded by high mountains had never been able to receive a tv signal. This community, code name Notel, offered Tanis Williams an opportunity to study the effects of exposure to TV. The behaviours and attitudes were assessed in various ways, such as questionnaires about their gender stereotypes.
A further analysis was made of the children in Notel before the introduction of television and again 2 years later.
It was found that their views had become significantly more sex-typed

Question 79

AO3 evidence for the influence of TV on gender stereotypes

Answer 79

P - evidence for the influence of TV on gnder stereotypes comes from the Notel study by Williams 1985
E - It is normally difficult to find control groups of individualt who have no exposure to media but Williams’ longitudinal study took advantage of the rare case of a remote community in Cananda that had no TV. It compared children’s stereotypes before and after TV was introduces and found that the children’s views became significantly more sex-stereotyped after TV arrived
E - this shows that exposure to the media can have significant effects on gender attitudes

Question 80

what is gender dysphoria

Answer 80

psychological distress that results from an incongruence between biological sex and gender

Question 81

what is the genetic explanation for gender dysphoria?

Answer 81

there has been a transsexual gene link identified
- this affects the activity of testosterone
- the longer variant of the androgen receptor gene is associated with less efficient testosterone activity
- reduced action of testosterone may have an effect on male development pre-nataly
- it may under-masculinise brain during foetal development

Question 82

support for the genetic explanation in explaining gender dysphoria AO3

Answer 82

P - genetic explanation for gender dysphoria of there being a ‘transsexual gene’ is supported by Hare et al
E - they studied DNA of 112 male to female transsexuals and found they were more likely to have a longer version of the androgen receptor gene than in the ‘normal’ sample. This results in a reduced activity of testosterone which is likely to have an effect on pre natal development. The brain may be less masculinised and so offers an explanation for experiencing gender dysmorphia

Question 83

Issues and debates AO3 of using the genetic explanation to explain gender dysmorphia

Answer 83

P - a problem with relying on genetic explanation to explain gender dysmorphia is that it sparks some issues and debates
E - for example, it could be seen as deterministic as it suggests that gender is fixed and rigid. It also may be socially sensitive as it can be assumed that transsexualism is inevitable and individuals have no choice over their gender feelings

Question 84

explain the brain structure explanation to explain gender dysmorphia

Answer 84

relies on the idea that males and females’ brains are different
- it may be that certain brain structures are inconsistent with biological sex
- the BSTc refers to the central subdivision of the Stria Terminalis, which is biologically different in each sex (it is larger in males)
The BSTc correlates with the prefereed sex in people with gender dysphoria

Question 85

limitation of using brain structure to explain gender dysmorphia

including a however point

Answer 85

P - Chung et al observed that the differences in BSTc volume between men and women doesn’t fully develop until adulthood, whereas most transsexuals report feelings of gender dysphoria from early childhood. This suggests BSTc sites may be an affect rather than a cause of dysphoria

H - however, Rametti et al found that in female to male transsexuals, they had a more similar white matter pattern to individuals who shared their gender identity (males) than females, before they started hormone therapy

E - these mixed findings suggest there is inconsistent evidence for the brain-sex theory

Question 86

what is the phantom limbs and cross wiring explanation of gender dysmorphia

Answer 86

Some researchers claim that, due to a difference during embryo development, the brains of transsexuals are ‘hard-wired’ in a manner that is opposite to that of their biological sex e.g. phantom penis sensation

researchers predict that male to female transsexuals will be less likely to experience a phantom penis than a ‘normal’ man who has had his penis removed

Question 87

what is the social learning theory of gender dysphoria

Answer 87

if a child lacks a stereotypical gender role model, observes and imitates a role model of the opposite sex, the child may display behaviour associated with the sex that is reinforced, they may develop a gender identity that doesn’t match their biological sex

Question 88

supporting evidence of using social learning theory as an explanation of gender dysphoria AO3

Answer 88

Rekers reported the lack of stereotypical male role models can cause gender dysphoria in boys, more so than biological factors. His study of 70 boys strongly supports the importance of SLT

Question 89

what is the childhood trauma theory of gender dysphoria

Answer 89

gender dysphoria is related to mental illnesses, which is linked to childhood trauma or maladaptive upbringing

Question 90

what did coates et al study in terms of childhood trauma theory of gender dysphoria

Answer 90

produced a case study of a boy who developed gender dysphoria - his mother became very depressed and this traumatised the boy. Coates suggests that the trauma may have led to a cross-gender fantasy to resolve the anxiety he encountered

Question 91

AO3 of using childhood trauma theory as an explanation of gender dysphoria - supporting evidence

Answer 91

P - there is evidence that supports this claim
E - Zuker et al found that 64% of boys with gender dysphoria were also diagnosed with separation anxiety disorders, compared to only 38% of the boys who had gender concerns but whose symptoms were only subclinical.
E - This supports some kind of disordered attachment to a mother as a factor in gender dysphoria, but only explains male to female transsexuals

Question 92

explain how a distorted mother-son relationship could lead to gender dysphoria

Answer 92

Stoller proposed that gender dysphoria results from distorted parental attitudes. Clinical interviews of individuals with GD indicated they displayed overly close and involved mother-son relationships.
Stoller claimed this would be likely to lead to greater female identification and confused gender identity

Question 93

AO3 to support how a distorted mother-son relationship could lead to gender dysphoria

Answer 93

research carried out in 2010 found high levels of expressed over-involvement in mothers towards their sons that had gender dysphoria. this supports the claim