A2 Gender

Question 1

how is the sex of a baby determined

Answer 1

all eggs carry an x chromosome and half of sperm carry a y and half carry an x chromosome.

if and X sperm fertilises the egg= girl
if Y sperm fertilised the egg = boy

Question 2

what is the sex determining region Y and where does it come from?

Answer 2

The y chromosome carries the SRY gene and it causes testes to develop in xy embryo.

this produces androgens (male sex hormones) causing the embryo to become male

Question 3

what 2 stages are hormones produced?

Answer 3

1. prenatally for brain development and sex development
2. in adolescence a surge of hormone during puberty leads to secondary sexual characteristics like pubic hair

Question 4

what is Testosterone and how is it linked to agression

Answer 4

male hormone which contols the development of male sex organs during Foetal development.

agression towards rivals allowed men to compete with others to get the most fertile female

Question 5

outline oestrogen

Answer 5

a female hormone that determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation

O can cause women to be more emotional and irritable on their cycle - premenstrual tension

Question 6

explain oxytocin

Answer 6

women produce it more especially after giving birth

stimulates lactation and makes mums feel in love with their new baby.

men lack this hormone creating the sterotype that men hate intimacy in relationships

Question 7

How does SLT work for determining our gender

Answer 7

we learn gender appropriate behaviour by observing and imitating others.
we identify with the same sex role model and internalise and imitate their gender appropriate behvaiour.

Question 7

A03 evaluation of the role of chromosomes and hormones

Answer 7

1.1evidence to support. david reimer penis burnt off,parents raised him as a girl, got depressed when older, found the truth, immediately changed back to male. though he was nurtured as female couldnt deny his biology as male

2.research against. Mead found tribe in papua NG W/ opposite gender roles to males were domestic and decorative and women were hunters. Gender must not have a biological basis as its not culturally consistent

3. Reductionist. reduces gender to the level of chromosomes and hormones. when theres other factors that can explain gender

Question 8

How does vicarious reinforcement work for gender?

Answer 8

we are more likely to imitate gender appropriate behaviour if we have seen it be rewarded. if gender inappropriate behaviour is punished we wont recreate

Question 9

what are the mediational processes

Answer 9

Attention
retention
motor reproduction
motivation

Question 10

A03 evaluation of social learning theory approach of gender

Answer 10

1. Smith and lloyd 4-6 month old baby dressed in boy clothes half the time and girl clothes the other half. Adults gave babies they thought were boys hammer and girls a doll and were told they were pretty and passive

2.no longer a clear cut between stereotypically masculine and feminine roles like there was in the 1950’s . can be explained by a shift in social norms. theres been no change in peoples biology so SLT is better explanation

3. Slt doesnt explain how learning changes with age. SLt states modelling of gender app. behaviours occur from birth onwards . THis is illogical as children who are two dont learn like children who are 9.contradicts kohlberg who says children dont become active in their gender until gender constancy

Question 11

What is the difference between sex and gender?

Answer 11

Sex is recognised by different chromosomes which determine reproductive organs

Gender is the psychological status of either masculine or feminine

Question 12

What are sex role sterotypes

Answer 12

A set of ideas about behaviours that are appropriate for males and females. Agreed upon in society

Question 13

How are sex role stereotypes developed

Answer 13

SLT: observation and imitation of same sex role models and then vicarious reinforcement

Question 14

Give 3 examples of where sex role stereotypes come from

Answer 14

Media
Parents
Institutions

Question 15

Why is being androgynous healthier than just masculine or feminine

Answer 15

They are better equipped to adapt to a range of situations. Non androgynous people have a narrow range of traits to draw from.

Question 16

Outline one way of measuring androgyny

Answer 16

Bem devised the sex role inventory as a measure of androgyny
60 part questionnaire with 20masc , 20 fem, 20 neutral
And respondents rate themselves on a 7 point scale. And divide both the masc and fem sets by 20

above 4.9 for both means they are androgenous

Question 17

A03 evaluation of androgyny and the bsri

Answer 17

1.lacks temporal validity. devised using gender norms of the 1970’s. societys perception of whats masc and fem has altered over the last 40 years. not applicable

2.BSRI is culturally bias. categories were devised by American judges so it represents their perception of masc/fem. e.g dominance is a masc trait but maybe fem in other cultures

3. bem states androgynous people aremor psychologically healthy but this has been challenged as researchers found people with more masculine traits are better adjusted and more valued in western society

Question 18

kohlbergs theory stage 1:

Answer 18

age 2
gender identity
children know they are a boy or girl and can identify others as male or female
they are unaware that gender is permanent

Question 19

kohlbergs theory stage 2

Answer 19

at age 4 they have gender stability.
they realise that they will stay the same gender over time but cant apply this logic to others.
they are confused by external changes in appearance

Question 20

Kohlbergs theory stage 3

Answer 20

at age 6 they reach gender constancy
gender remains consistent over time for everyone
they are no longer fooled by outward changes in appearance.
they look for gender appropriate role models to identify with

Question 21

A03 evaluation of kohlbergs theory

Answer 21

1. slaby and frey showed a split screen of males and females performing tasks. youngers spent equal time looking at male and females whereas kids age 6 spent more time looking at the same sex
2. research against gender constancy. Bussey and bandura found children as young as 4 felt good about playing with gender appropriate toys and bad with gender inappropriate. kohlberg says this is too early
3. methodological issues w kohlbergs research.
   he did a structured interview with children as young 2, about their understanding of gender. they may have complex ideas of gender but not the verbal capacity to express it

Question 22

whats the difference between children taking an active and passive role in their gender?

Answer 22

active: active interest in discovering gender appropriate behaviour

passive: childrens understanding develops without their effort

Question 23

what is a gender schema?

Answer 23

a package of beliefs someone holds about gender appropriate and inappropriate behaviour based on experience

Question 24

difference between ingroups and outgroups

Answer 24

their group is the ingroup the opposite sex is the outgroup

Question 25

how and when do children develop their gender schema

Answer 25

at age 2 children have gender identity and actively seek out information about how members of their group should behave e.g toys and activities the child ignores those who do not relate to their group e.g boys ignore girly toys

Question 26

what a schemas formed around and how does this effect experience?

Answer 26

young children's schemas are formed around stereotypes and serve as a framework for their experiences e.g the boys know that boys play with trucks so he must too

Question 27

A03 evaluation of gender schema theory

Answer 27

1. evidence to support. halverson found kids under 6 were more likely to remember pics of stereotypical gender app behaviour than inappropriate. when asked to recall inapp behaviour they changed the gender 2. gender identity may occur earlier. a longitudinal study of 82s found they could label themselves as a boy or girl at 18 months as soon as they learnt to communicate. they have it b4 but cant express it 3.accounts for cultural differences in stereotypical behaviour. trad cultures with woman and homemaker and man as breadwinner different gender schema so difference in behaviours being performes

Question 28

outline klinefelters syndrome

Answer 28

they are biologically male but have an extra x chromosome structure : XXY 2/3 of people who have it unaware

Question 29

name 2 physical and 2 psychological symptoms of klinefelters syndrome

Answer 29

reduced body hair underdeveloped genitals or problems with clumsiness poorly developed language skills and reading abilitiy passive and lack interest in sexual activity

Question 30

outline turners syndrome

Answer 30

turners syndrome is caused by an absence of one of the 2 allotted chromosomes structure is xo they are biologically female and have 45 chromosomes instead of 46

Question 31

outline 2 physical and 2 psychological features of turners syndrome

Answer 31

no menstrual cycle as their ovaries failed to develop low set ears and webbed neck higher than average reading ability socially immature: have problems fitting in

Question 32

A03 evaluation of atypical chromosomal patterns

Answer 32

1. contributes to N vs N debate. Without looking at ATCP we cant compare behaviours specific to males and females that have a biological basis e.g turners syndrome higher than average reading ability. these have a chromosomal basis 2. issues with cause and effect, it may be environmental differences that are responsible for behavioural differences. e.g social immaturity found in turner syndrome may be because people treat them immaturely due to the pre pubescent body 3. people who suffere from these conditions are rare: turner : 1/5000 females. this makes it hard to study and make meaningful generalisations

Question 33

why do we study atypical chromosome patterns

Answer 33

for comparisons with individuals with typical sex chromosome patterns can make inferences about nature vs nurture of gender development as there should be differences between atypical and typical.

Question 34

what age does freud suggest that gender development occurs

Answer 34

in the phallic stage between 3-6

Question 35

how does gender development occur in the phallic stage

Answer 35

the focus of pleasure is the genitals gender identity starts when they pay attention to others genitals and notice physical differences between men and women. they develop and Oedipus and electra complex and the overcome it

Question 36

A03 evaluation of the psychodynamic approach to gender

Answer 36

1. socially sensitive. Freud said nuclear family is required to manage the complex effectively otherwise an adverse effect on the child's gender development. this was proven false and creates negative stereotypes on lone parents 2. freud theory is androcentric. developed using little hans to explain male gender development and someone else applied it to females. behaviour judged according to male norms ignore differences between men and women. 3. psychodynamic approach is pseudoscientific, uses case studies. the data is subjective and open to interpretation so its not accurate. concepts like oedipus complex are untestable due to unconscious nature

Question 37

how might culture affect gender

Answer 37

it determines what norms and values are appropriate for males and females which is the observed and imitated.

Question 38

if a particular gender role behaviour appears to be consistent in different cultures what can we conclude?

Answer 38

this represents innate biological differences between men and women if gender roles behaviour are culturally specific we can assume the influence of shared norms

Question 39

outline one study of cultural differences

Answer 39

Mead examined tribes in Papua new Guinea and found they had reversed gender roles to the west. the men were more domestic and decorative and the women were hunters

Question 40

outline one study of cultural similarities in gender roles

Answer 40

Buss found consistent patterns in mate preferences in 37 countries across all continents women sought men who could offer wealth men south women with youth and physical attractiveness.

Question 41

A03 evaluation of the role of media on gender

Answer 41

difficult to establish cause and effect about the influence of media on gender role stereotypes. maybe media has led to output of gender norms or gender norms in the media are a reflection of existing society. Williams investigated a small canadian towns. NOtel (no tv), UNItel(one tv) and MULTItel. to begin NOtel and UNItel had less gender role stereotypes than Multitel but once they got signal they developed stereotyopes

Question 42

How might the media affect gender roles

Answer 42

they provide role models that children want to identify with and imitate they imitate same sex role models that engage in gender appropriate behaviour

Question 43

how does the media affect self efficacy

Answer 43

seeing other people perform gender appropriate behaviour increases the belief that they are able to perform such behaviour in the future new detective drama in india designed to challenge stereotypes was made the study found girls who watched the drama were more likely to see themselves working outside of the home

Question 44

explain what is meant by gender dysphoria

Answer 44

persistent feelings of identification with the opposite gender and discomfort with one’s own assigned sex. they desire to live as members of the opposite sex and act like the opposite gender

Question 45

Name 2 biological explanations of gender dysphoria

Answer 45

brain sex theory genetic factors

Question 46

Name 2 social explanations of gender dysphoria

Answer 46

psychoanalytic theory social constructionism

Question 47

outline the genetic factors of gender dysphoria

Answer 47

theres a strong heritable component to gender dysphoria. Heylens et al compared 23 Mz twins with 23 Dz twins where one of each was diagnosed with gender dysphoria. 9 MZ twins shared gender dysphoria whereas 0 DZ shared it

Question 48

explain the brain sex theory of gender dysphoria

Answer 48

zhou et al studied the bed nucleus of the stria terminals which is fully developedat age 5 and 40% larger in males than females. In post mortems of 6 MTF transgenders the BSTc was found to be the size of that in females gender dysphoria is caused by brain structures thatare incompatible with someones bio sex

Question 49

Ao3 evaluations of the biological explanations of gender dysphoria

Answer 49

one weakness if there's other brain differences. Rametti studied white matter (deeper tissues of the brain). he analysed the brains of transgenders before they began hormone therapy. the distribution of white matter corresponded more closely to the gender that the individuals wanted to be than their biogical sex. weakness is contradictory evidence for the BSTc. Zhou claimed it was fully developed at age 5 so hormone therapy wouldn't affect it. but chung et al found transgender hormone therapy did affect the size of the BSTc

Question 50

explain the psychoanalytic theory as an explanation of gender dysphoria

Answer 50

oversey and person say its caused in little boys when they experience extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established. the child fantasises about symbiotic fusion with his mother to relieve the anxiety leading to the child adopting a female identity

Question 51

explain the social constructionism explanation of gender dysphoria

Answer 51

this says gender dysphoria doesn't represent underlying physical differences between people but is invented by society. confusion arises when society forces people to be either a man or a woman. gender dysphoria isnt a pathological condition but a social phenomenon that arises when people must pick a side

Question 52

A03 evaluation of psychoanalytic theory

Answer 52

gender dysphoria theory is incomplete. oversey and person does explain GD in females, only applies to MTF. rekers found that gender dysphoria in AMAB is associated with absence of a father rather than fear of separation from a mother

Question 53

evaluate the role of culture on gender

Answer 53

cross cultural research cannot solve the nature vs nurture debate. as soon as a child is born into a society, socialisation into their roles begins so its hard to see what gender behaviours are innate. meads cross cultural study has been criticised. Freeman did a follow up study and found that she had been misled by some of her participants. lacks internal validity as she was influenced by her own incentives