A01 terminology Flashcards
abstract nouns
refer to ideas that only exist in the mind
accent
the distinct pronunciation patterns in groups of people
accommodation
where a speaker adopts another speaker’s accent, dialect or sociolect
acronomy
abbreviation using the first letter of a group of words and pronounced as a single word e.g. NASA, OPEC, RAM
active voice
clause construction where the subject is also the actor (they are doing or have done something to somebody/something)
adjacency pair
a pair of utterances in a conversation that go together (greeting and reply, question and answer, etc.)
adjective
a word that modifies the noun (e.g. the ORANGE sky)
adverb
a word that modifies the verb telling you how, where or when an action takes place; can also modify adjectives, telling you how much (e.g. I am REALLY delighted)
adverbial
words, phrases or clauses which act as adverbs and which identify where, when and how when modifying the verb
affordance
linguistic and behavioural choices provided by technology
agenda setting
where a speaker sets up the main topic of conversation
analogical overextension
associating objects which are unrelated but which have one or more features in common (e.g. both being the same colour)
anchored relationship
an online relationship where two participants know each other in the offline world
article
a determiner such as ‘a’ or ‘the’
asymmetrical power
an imbalance of power between people
asynchronous
unlike synchronous, there is a delay between utterance and response, responses posted on a forum, which may occur months or even years after the original post, are an example of discourse that is asynchronous
audience
the person or people reading or hearing the text
auxiliary verb
assists the main verb; primary auxiliary verbs do, have and be denote changes of tense
avatar
an image used by a user that accompanies a username
backchanelling
supportive terms such as ‘oh’ and ‘really’
bald on-record
where a speaker is completely blunt and direct (e.g. ‘sit down!’)
bias
a form of prejudice in favour of or against an idea, person or group, expressed through languages/images and so on. It can take obvious or implicit forms, or a mixture of the two, and can arise from what is omitted as well as what is stated or shown
bidialectalism
a speaker’s ability to use two dialects of the same language
categorical overextension
the most commonly occurring form of overextension in a child’s language, and relates to confusing a hypernym (broad category e.g. fruit) with a hyponym (specific example)
catenative
chain-like structure in a sentence (‘so we…and then…and then we…’)
chaining
a speaker responds and sets up the other speaker’s next utterance in a chain that runs past an adjacency pair
child-directed speech (CDS)
speech patterns used by parents and carers when communicating with young children
clause
a structural unit that contains at least one subject and one verb - it can include other features as well such as object, complement and adverbial
closer
spoken expressions that are designed to close
codification
a process of standardizing language
cohesion
the many parts of a text that help to draw it together into a recognisable whole (for example, the headline, picture and caption in a news article will all have words/images that link together in terms of the meaning and subject matter of the article
collocation
two or more words that are often found together in a group or phrase with a distinct meaning (e.g. ‘over the top’, ‘fish and chips’, ‘back to front’)
comparative adjective
the form of an adjective that designates comparison between two things, generally by adding the suffix -er to its base form (e.g. ‘this is a FASTER car’)
complement
a clause element that tells you more about the subject or object
complex sentence
has two or more clauses, one of which is a subordinate clause
compound
a word formed from two other words (e.g. ‘dustbin’)
compound sentence
has two or more clauses, usually joined to the main clause by the conjunctions ‘and’ or ‘but’ and depends on the main clause to exist
compound-complex sentence
a sentence that has three or more clauses, one of which will be a subordinate clause and one of which will be a coordinate clause
concrete nouns
refer to things we touch or can experience physically (e.g. snow, butter)
morpheme
the smallest grammatical unit
free morpheme
a morpheme that can stand on its own as a word
affix (bound morpheme)
a morpheme that cannot stand on its own as a word, but combines with others to create a new word
phrase
a group of words centred around a head word
head word
the central word in a phrase which gives the phrase its name (e.g. noun phrase, adjective phrase) and may be modified by other words
modification
the adding of additional words to provide more detail to a head word in a phrase either before it (pre modification) or after it (post modification)
clause
a group of words centred around a verb, which may either be grammatically complete (main clause) or incomplete (subordinate clause)
active voice
a clause where the agent (doer) of an action is the subject
passive voice
a clause where the patient (the entity affected by an action) is in the subject position, and the agent either follows or is left out
tense
how the time of an event is marked (usually through verb inflection): past, present and future
aspect
another element of marking the time of an event, by specifying whether they are progressive (ongoing) or perfective (completed)
coordination
the joining of two or more independent clauses via coordination conjunctions, single word and longer phrases can also be coordinated
subordination
the joining of two or more phrases where only one is independent (the main clause) and the others dependent (subordinate clauses)
sentence
a larger unit of meaning , which may be formed of a single clause (simple sentence), or several clauses (compound or complex sentences), minor sentences are sentences without a verb
sentence function
the purpose a sentence fulfils in communication: as a statement, question, command or exclamation. These are also referred to as declaratives, interrogatives, interrogatives, imperatives and exclamatives
word class
the grammatical category into which words can be placed, including noun, adjective, verb, adverb, determiner, pronoun, preposition, conjunction
Adverb of manner
(-ly), tells you how an action occurred
Preposition
Connects a noun/pronoun to a verb or adjective (time/place/direction)
Modal auxiliary
Subclass of auxiliary verbs, they express modality e.g. must, should, can
Noun phrase
A noun accompanied by pre or post modifiers
Imperative verb
Command
Abstract noun
The name of thing that is not physical e.g a feeling or emotion
Concrete noun
The name of a physical object
Superlative adjective
Expresses the largest extent of something
Pronoun
Identifies the subject
Declarative sentence
Statement
Conditioning
The process by which humans are taught or trained to respond and learn by positive enforcement (e.g. praise from an adult) for whatever is deemed to be appropriate learning within that specific context - for choosing a correct word or for politeness
conjunction
a word that joins clauses together
connotation
the associated meanings we have with certain words, depending on the person reading or hearing the word, and on the context in which the word appears
consonant clusters
groups of consonants (e.g. str or gl) that demand more muscular control than single consonants or vowels, so tend to appear later in the baby’s utterances
constraints
linguistic and behavioural restrictions provided by technology
context
where when and how a text is produced or received
convergence
where a speaker moves towards another speaker’s accent, dialect or sociolect
cooing
sounds a baby will make like ‘goo’ and ‘ga-ga’ generally around the age of 6-8 weeks, it is believed that during this period the child is discovering their vocal chords
coordinate clause
a clause beginning with a coordinating conjunction and is essentially a main clause joined to another main clause
coordinating conjunction
signal the start of a coordinating clause
copular verb
a verb that takes a complement (such as seems, appears or a form of the verb to be - is, was, are etc.)
corpus
a collection of written texts
covert prestige
describes high social status through the use of non standard forms (small group)
declarative
a statement - a type of sentence which gives more information and where the subject typically comes in front of the verb (two fish were in the tank)
definite article
the
deixis
terms that point towards something and place the words in context
what are examples of temporal deixis?
the day before, the previous week, the next day, yesterday, last week, tomorrow, this week, today, now
what are examples of spatial deixis?
over there, yonder, there, that, those, here, this, these
what are examples of personal deixis?
they, their, it, its, she, her, his, he , you, your, I, me, we, us
denotation
the literal, generally accepted definition of a word
determiner
words determining the number or status of the noun (e.g. definite article, indefinite articles ‘a and an’, demonstratives ‘this that these those’, pronouns and possessives, quantifiers ‘a few, too much, many’, numbers)
dialect
a non standard variety of language, including lexis and grammar, particular to a region
direct object
the part of the clause that is directly acted upon by the subject
discourse
describes the structure of any text (or segment of text) that is longer than a single sentence
discourse markers
marks a change in an extended piece of written or spoken text (e.g. nevertheless, to sum up etc.)
dismissal formula
a device used to close a conversation
dispreferred response
a response that is unexpected, although not necessarily rude if phrased appropriately (e.g. Speaker A: dinners ready at 7/ Speaker B: Not dinner, I’ve only just had breakfast)
divergence
where a speaker actively distances himself/herself from another speaker by accentuating their own accent or dialect
downward convergence
making your accent or lexis more informal
estuary English
a dialect of English that is perceived to have spread outwards from London along the South East of England, it has features of RP and London English
Etymology
the history of a word, including the language it came from, if appropriate, and when it began to be regularly used
exophoric reference
a reference to something, often cultural, beyond the text
extra-linguistic variables
factors that affect the way you speak (e.g. age, where you live, etc.)
feral children
children who are raised without human intervention
field
words used in a text which relate to the text’s subject matter
flouts a maxim
where someone obviously does not obey the conversational maxims that have been suggested by Grice
formality
describes the degree to which texts stick to certain conventions and how impersonal they are, the more spoken features a text has the more informal it will tend to be
framing
controlling the agenda of the conversation (its direction and subject), or making utterances that encourage a child to fill in the blanks
French/Latinate lexis
words derived from French or Latin, or both that are more rarely used; often seen as having a higher status, and/or being more specialist
genre
the kind of text you have in front of you (advert,speech,song)
gestural
a way of communicating that relates to movement and/or body language, either instead of words or (as would be likely in a multi modal media text) in addition to them
glottal stops
a form of stop consonant made at the back of the throat to replace the t sound
grammar
the building blocks of sentences (words, phrases, clauses, etc.) and how they go together to mean something to the reader or the listener
grammarian
a scholar of grammar
grapheme-phoneme relationship
the correspondence between the written shape of a letter and its sound
head noun
the main noun at the centre of a noun phrase
high-frequency lexis
words that appear often in everyday speech
holophrase
a single word representing a more complex thought generally created by a child, for example the word juice may be used to signify ‘i want some juice’ - in this context juice would be a holophrase, up is another example often signalling please lift me up or i want to get up
hospitality token
a polite utterance relating to context designed to put speakers at their ease
hyperlink
an electronic link embedded in a text that takes the reader to another website
hypernym
categories e.g. pets, vehicles and sweets
hyponym
examples within categories e.g. pony, truck and sherbet lemons
idiom
a form of common non-literal expression e.g. ‘I was dead on my feet’
idiolect
your own individual way of speaking
illocutionary act
implying something in what we say
imperative
a command - a type of sentence where the subject is usually left out and the verb is in its bare form (‘Give the hat to me’)
indirect object
receives the action
inflection
an ending such as -ed, -s or -ing added to change a tense or number, or in the case of nouns to make it plural
infographic
a graphical format which can also be animated to display information e.g. in mini blogs
initialism
abbreviation using the first letter of a group of words and pronounced separately e.g. FBI, CIA, DVD
interrogative
a question - a type of sentence indicated by swapping round of subject and verb (‘are you happy?’ rather than ‘you are happy’), by the use of question words (who, what, where, when, how), or by the use of a question mark (you’re coming by train?)
intertextuality/intertextual reference
a subtle reference to another text that helps to create a sense of shared context and can operate on a pragmatic level, creating a sense of imagined closeness between writer and reader
intonation
the pitch (how high or low you are in your vocal range)
irregular verbs
change their form when changing from present to past tense (e.g. swim/swam)
isogloss
the divisions that linguists draw between regions according to different dialects
juxtaposition
the placement of two contrasting ideas or things next to each other
labelling
the process of attaching words to object; as the child learns more about the world their capacity to connect words with an increasing range of objects grows
left branching sentence
has the subordinate clause or clauses before the main clause
lexical field
identifies the main subject matter of a text e.g. food in a recipe, money in an article on economics
lexicon
the vocabulary of a language
lexis
words and their origins
linear
a text in which the discourse is organised into some sort of sequence e.g. a narrative with a beginning, middle and end, there may be an implied expectation that the reader will read the text in the order in which it appears
loanword
an English word that has come into use having been borrowed from another language
locutionary act
saying something
low-frequency lexis
words that appear more rarely such as specialist terms for a field e.g. medicine
main clause
a clause that can stand on its own grammatically
main verb
the verb that carries the main meaning or process in a verb phrase (and therefore in a clause/sentence)
mainstream dialect
the dialect that spans the whole English nation
manner
used to express how formal or informal a text is
manner maxim
a co-operative principle relating to what you say so that you avoid being obscure or ambiguous and be orderly
marked
refers to words that are ascribed less prestige than the standard or unmarked form (e.g. gendered terms such as goddess and ladette)
metatalk
explicit talk about grammar and language
minor sentence
a sentence that has some missing elements, such as the subject or the verb, making it technically ungrammatical
mixed mode
features of speech and writing in the same text
modal auxiliary verb
a sub category of auxiliary verb that expresses degrees of possibility, probability, necessity or obligation
mode
texts can be in spoken mode (e.g. spontaneous conversation between friends) or written mode (e.g. an English essay) or mixed mode (e.g. a political speech will be written but delivered as a speech)
modification
description in the form of words, phrases or whole clauses that alters our understanding of the ting being described
modifier
any word that describes a noun (can be an adjective, adverb or noun)
morphological derivation
the process of creating a new word out of an old word or affix (e.g. the suffix -ly changes adjectives into adverbs - nice becomes nicely)
multimodal
a text that uses more than one mode; often used for texts that have a combination of text and images
negative face
our desire to avoid doing something we don’t want to do, such as giving money to a stranger, this is part of Goffman’s ideas about face
negative politeness
a more indirect, hedged approach, often using negative constructions (e.g. ‘You couldn’t take the bin out for me, could you?’ ) This is linked to theories of face
neologism
a newly formed or coined word
network building
having labelled objects, children start to identify connections between them, recognising similarities and differences
neutral comment
speaker makes a comment on something neutral in the surroundings such as the weather
nonce formation
a ‘nonsense’ new word that is created for a special occasion (e.g. just before lunch ‘feeling hungryish’ might be used)
non-finite subordinate clause
clauses in which the verb is not ‘finished’ and the tense is therefore not shown (e.g. clauses with to- infinitives like ‘to buy some cheese’ or with an -ing form of the verb such as in ‘running down the road’)
non-linear
a text with no expected sequence for reading - the cohesion may be less obvious and this may be reflected in the layout (e.g. more use may be made of features such as text boxes and hyperlinks than if the text was linear)
noun phrase
a group of words with a noun at the centre of it
nouns
words which name people, places, things, ideas and concepts
number homophones
where numbers are used to replace all or part of a word whose sound they resemble, usually within the context of an electronic text (e.g. 2 for to or gr8 for great)
object
this normally receives the action and comes after the verb
object permanence
the ability of a baby to recognise that an object still exists even when they cannot actually see it, thus it requires the capacity to form a mental representation of the object
off record
in conversation where no threat is made to someone’s face (‘this room’s pretty messy isn’t it’)
orthographical
the methodology for writing a language including features such as spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, etc
orthography
the spelling convention of a language
other-related comment
speaker comments about another speaker (e.g. ‘you look like you need a drink’)
overextension
widening the meaning of a word so that it extends to apply not just to the actual object but also to other objects with similar properties or functions
over-generalisation
the over application of rules about the formation of words
overt prestige
refers to a dialect used by a culturally powerful group
pace
the speed at which you talk
packaging
in trying to ascertain the boundaries of the label the child sometimes confuses hypernyms and hyponyms, giving rise to over and under extensions
passive voice
clause construction where the subject is not the actor (they have had or are having something done to them)
periodic sentence
a complex sentence in which the main clause is saved until the end (e.g. ‘the minister, who was usually late in the mornings, except on those occasions when she had been working all night, was already at her desk’)
perlocutionary act
what happens in response to what is said (i.e. what is understood)
phatic talk
speech which is really just designed to maintain social relationships and does not carry a significant meaning, often used to start a conversation (e.g. ‘hi there (.) how are you?’)
phonemic contraction
the sounds a child can make are reduced so that they can only make the sounds of their own language
phonemic expansion
an increase in the variety of sounds a child can produce
phonetics
the study of how we produce particular sounds (e.g. ‘t’ and ‘d’ are stop consonants, produced by stopping the flow of air at the alveolar ridge, just behind the top teeth)
phonology
the study of the sound system in the language and the effects of its particular features (i.e. looking at consonants, vowels, rhythms, stresses, pace)
polysemic
describes a word with more than one meaning (e.g. set can refer to a set of cutlery, a tennis set, what happens to jelly and so on)
polysemy
many meanings in a word
positive face
our need to maintain self-esteem, positive face is threatened when we are criticised in any way
positive reinforcement
when a behaviour is rewarded and therefore encouraged to be repeated
possessive determiner
determiner which shows who the noun belongs to (e.g. my book)
positive politeness
an informal approach that assumes the other party will agree (‘I think that just about wraps it up, don’t you?’) this is linked to theories of face
post-modified
the modification that comes after the head noun (or after a phrase or clause)
post-telegraphic stage
in the post telegraphic stage, the child’s early reliance on lexical (content) words gradually expands to include auxiliaries, prepositions, and articles, e.g. ‘Mummy car’ evolves to ‘Mummy is in the car’, timing of this shift varies but 30 months approximately is likely
pragmatic failure
where the meaning that is implied is not the meaning that is understood by the listener
pragmatics
what we really mean by what we say or write in a given context OR can refer to the contextual aspects of language use
predicate overextension
conveying meaning that relates to absence (e.g. making the utterance ‘cat’ when looking at the cat’s empty bed)
pre modified
modification that comes before the head noun (or before a phrase or clause)
preposition
a word which shows how elements in a sentence or clause relate to each other in time or space
pre-start
a word or phrase made to clear the air before a turn begins (e.g. ‘well…’)
primary verbs
be, have, do
privation
the absence of social relationships
productive vocabulary
the term used to describe the words a person (not necessarily a child) is able to use, either in speech or writing
pronoun
a word which stands in place of a noun or noun phrase (usually used to avoid repetition of the noun)
proper nouns
words for specific people or places (e.g. Swindon)
prosodics
how we use rhythm, stress, intonation and pace in speech to create particular effects
proto-words
clusters of sounds (e.g. da) that represent the baby’s attempt to articulate specific words when their motor coordination is still in early stages of development
pun
a play on words, often using multiple meanings of words for effect (e.g. ‘A man walks into a bar “ouch!”’)
purpose
describes why the text was produced or uttered (to entertain, to persuade, to inform, to advice etc.)
quality maxim
a cooperative principle that requires that you do not say what you believe to be false
quantity maxim
a cooperative principle that requires you are careful in what you say, be just as informative as needed and no more
recasting
the rephrasing and expanding of a child’s utterance
received pronunciation (RP)
a prestige form of English pronunciation
receptive vocabulary
relates to words a person recognises/understands and is likely to be larger than their productive vocabulary
reduplicated monosyllable
the repetition of a sound such as ‘baba’
register
the type or variety of language that the writer or speaker has chosen to use (e.g. formal register, medical register, academic register etc.)
regular verbs
take a regular -ed inflection when changing from present to past tense (e.g. walk/walked)
relation maxim
a co-operative principle that requires that you make what you say relevant to the last speakers turn
representation
language used to present an impression of ourselves, or of an event, company or institution (like your school or college) to the wider world
scaffolding
a form of linguistic support whereby adults, through their interactions, provide the child with conversational material and patterning (e.g. the parent might say ‘What did we buy at the shop today? Did we buy apples?’, thus providing the child with some key lexis and grammar structures, supporting them in continuing the conversation)
self-related comment
speaker makes a comment about themselves (e.g. ‘I’m run off my feet’)
semantic field
a pattern of words with similar meanings found across a text or texts (e.g. bolt, trap, cage)
semantic shift
the change in a meaning of a word
semantics
meanings of words, both on their own and in relation to other words in the text
semiotics
the study of signs and symbols; considering not only the ways in which words work but also by considering images, sounds, music and patterns
simple sentence
only has one clause
sociolect
a variety of language that is characteristic of the social background or status of its user
standardisation
the process of forming a uniform language codified in dictionaries, educational and government texts that demands conformity by all variant language forms
stress
where volume is raised to place emphasis on a particular syllable
subject
this normally performs the action of the sentence or clause and can be a singular word or a phrase
subordinate clause
depends on the main clause to exist
subordinating conjunctions
these signal the start of a subordinate clause
superlative adjective
expresses the highest level of the quality represented by the adjective, generally made by adding -est to the base form (e.g. the fastest car)
synchronicity
events that occur simultaneously, such as communication
synchronous
at the same time; a face to face conversation would be an example of synchronous discourse
synonym
a word that has a similar meaning to another word (e.g. malady and illness)
syntax
the order of the elements in a clause or sentence (subject, verb, object, etc.)
tag question
an interrogative clause added to the end of a declarative to make it into a question (e.g. we’re meeting for lunch today, aren’t we?)
telegraphic stage
usually associated with language development in infants of approximately 24-36 months, this term refers to speech that resembles an old-fashioned telegram, generally characterised by the omission of auxiliary verbs and determiners and with a focus on lexical essentials (e.g. ‘daddy get milk’ or ‘ben feed ducks’)
topic management
the way topics in a conversation are organised or handed from speaker to speaker - can also be known as agenda setting
transition relevance place (TRP)
the point at which one turn is ending and another turn is signalled
turn construction unit (TCU)
a fundamental segment of speech in conversation analysis
turn-taking
the process of taking turns in a conversation, where only one speaker speaks at a time
two-word stage
usually occurs around the age of 18 months to two years and refers to a child’s ability to start producing utterances which use words in combination this will often take the form of subject and verb (e.g. doggie gone) but variation of syntax is possible, as the child begins to shape meaning -sometimes using intonation as well (e.g. mummy come (statement), mummy come? (question) and come mummy (command))
underextension
when the meaning ascribed to a word used by a child which is narrower than the meaning it has in adult language; using a hyponym instead of a hypernym e.g. a child may use the word cat instead of pet
upward convergence
changing your accent or lexical choices to something you perceive as more prestigious
valediction
expression of farewell
verb
the action or state in the sentence or clause (can be a single word or verb phrase)
vernacular
everyday regional language spoken by people
vernacular writing
informal, non-standard writing
violates a maxim
subtle failure of someone to observe a maxim (e.g. going on a bit too long on a topic)
vocative
directly expressing someone via’to someone in conversation by their name
Phoneme
The basic unit of sound
Dipthong
A vowel sound that is the combination of two separate sounds, where a speaker glides from one to another
Voicing
The act of the vocal cords either vibrating (voices) or not vibrating (unvoiced) in the production of a consonant sound
Place of articulation
The position in the mouth where a consonant sound is produced
Manner of articulation
The extent to which airflow is interrupted by parts in the mouth in the production of consonant sounds
Syllable
A sound unit with a vowel at its centre
Accent
A regional variety of speech that differs from other regional varieties in terms of pronunciation
Accommodation
The ways that individuals adjust their speech patterns to match others
Sound iconicity
The use of the sound system to mirror the form or meaning
International phonemic alphabet
An internationally recognised system of phonetic transcription
Denotative and connotative meanings
The literal (denotative) and associated (connotative) meanings of words
Figurative language
Language uses in a non-literal way in order to describe something in another’s terms (e.g. simile or metaphor)
Semantic fields
Groups of words connected by a shared field of reference, e.g. medicine, art
Synonyms
Words that have equivalent meanings
Antonyms
Words that have contrasting meanings
Hypernyms
Words that label categories e.g. animal, which includes for example dog, cat and rabbit
Hyponyms
Words that can be included in a larger, more general category (e.g. the hyponyms car, bus, aeroplane as a form of the hypernym transport)
Levels of formality
Vocabulary styles including slang, colloquialisms, taboo, formal and fixed levels
Occupational register
A technical vocabulary associated with a particular occupation or activity
Sociolect
A language style associated with a particular social group
Dialect
A language style associated with a particular geographical region
Neology
The process of new word formation, including the following: blends, compounds, acronyms, initialisms, eponyms
Semantic change
The process of words changing meaning, including the following: narrowing, broadening, amelioration, peroration, semantic reclamation
Morpheme
The smallest grammatical unit
Free morpheme
A morpheme that can stand on its own as a word
Affix (or bound morpheme)
A morpheme that cannot stand on its own as a word, but combines with others to create a new word
Phrase
A group of words centred around a head word
Head word
The central word in a phrase which gives the phrase its name (e.g. noun phrase, adjective phrase) and may be modified by other words
modification
the adding of additional words to provide more detail to a head word in a phrase either before or after
clause
a group of words centred around a verb, which may be either grammatically complete (main) or incomplete (subordinate)
implicature
an implied meaning that has to be inferred as a result of a conversational maxim being broken
inference
the process of deriving implied meanings
irony
using language to signal an attitude other than what has literally been expressed
deixis
words that are context bound where meaning depends on who is being referred to, where something is happening or when it is happening
speech acts
communicative acts that carry meaning beyond the words and phrases used within them, for example apologies and promises
politeness
the awareness of others’ needs to be approved of and liked (positive politeness) and or given freedom to express their own identity and choices (negative politeness)
discourse markers
words, phrases or clauses that help to organise what we say or write e.g. OK, so, as I was saying
adjuncts
non essential elements of clauses (usually adverbials) that can be omitted
disjuncts
sentence adverbs that work to express an attitude or stance towards material that follows e.g. frankly or sadly
narrative structures
how events, actions, and processes are sequenced when recounting a story
layout
the way a text is physically structured
typographical features
the features of fonts used in texts such as font type, size and colour
orthographical features
the features of the writing system such as spelling, capitalisation and punctuation
