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botany > A: topic 5 and 6 > Flashcards

A: topic 5 and 6 Flashcards

1
Q

plant cell specifications

A

Cell wall – plasmodesmata form a communication between the plant cells

Plastids

Vacuoles

Inclusions

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2
Q

Ploidy

A

Ploidy level: Number of chromosome sets in a cell

Polyploid: more than two sets (haploid, diploid)

Triploid species: bigger vegetative body, better resistance

Tetraploid species: increased production of reproductive organs Goal of breeding: better attribution

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3
Q

vacoules

  1. how are they made and of what
  2. different types
A
  1. tonoplast membrane storing solid or fluid compounds and gases

Vesicles of ER and dictyosomes(many together form the gogi apparatus) -> provacuoles

The provacuoles fuse into larger ones -> central vacuole

(In animal cells the vacuoles are of little importance)

  1. Storage(isolating metabolites), cell lysis, maintaining hydrostatic pressure and pH, dispertion and protection
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4
Q

lysosomes

A

Thick membrane

Hydrolytic enzymes in the middle – autophagy

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5
Q

vegetative (storage) vacoules

A

Diluted water solution, mildly acidic pH 5-6 (BUT pl. lemon pH 2)

Ions, by-products, waste products, nutrient storage

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6
Q

inclusions

A

No constant, but not essential substances

No metabolic activity

no membranes

Protein inclusions; globoid-, crystalloid forms, aleurone layer

Carbohydrate inclusion; mainly stach

oil inclusions: oil droplets

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7
Q

crystals

A

Accumulation of inorganic compounds: Oxalates, carbonates

silicates Digestion problems, irritation

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8
Q

plastids

1. fuctions and types

A

1.
Assimilation, synthesising metabolic processes, storage functions

Coloured plastids: chloro- and chromoplastids

Colourless plastids: leukoplastids

  1. Plastid development

Originates from prokaryotes
Proplastid

No sunlight: Etioplastids(an example of leukoplastids)

Sunlight: chromoplastids

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9
Q

Leucoplastid

A

Colourless plastids in organs not exposed to sunlight

Storage function!

The plant uses the stored nutrients or plastids can turn into green ones (potato)

Globular or fusiform shape

Examples:

Proteinoplastids – protein

Simple or compound types

storing and modifying proteins

In modified stems, seeds

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10
Q

Chromoplastids

A

Originated from proplastids or amiloplastids or chloroplastids (ripening, aging leaves)

Less developed inner membranes

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11
Q

Carotenoid pigments

A

carotene, xanthophylls: the two classes of carotenoid pigments

autumn leaf pigment

Globular, fibrillar or chrystalline forms

In flowers, fruits, leaves, roots Pollination, dispersal

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12
Q

Chloroplast

  1. Structure and function of thylakoid
  2. Compounds and functions of stroma
  3. plastid for C4 plants
A

1.
Outer membrane similar to cell membrane

Photosystems: intergal proteins and pigments(chlorophyll on membrane)

Electron transport chain: proteins ATP and NADPH production -> photosynthesis (light dependent reactions)

2. 
RuBisCO enzyme (protein complex)

Photosynthesis (light independent reaction, calvin) – production of glucose and intermediate products

3.
For C4 plants mesophyll cells has a granum structure, but it’s absent from the bundle-sheath cells!

Mesophyll cell and bundle sheath cell are much more closely related: unique step first in mesophyll cell, where CO2 and PEP is the first step to making malate, which will diffuse into the bundle sheath cell where the calvin cycle will happen as normal just with malate as a starting product instead of CO2. glucose is made

the first step in the mesophyll cell is there because PEP can only use CO2 even in low concentrations, while rubisco would have used O2 instead. this way the O2 is also separated form the calvin cycle so that only CO2 is used even in high temp., drought, low CO2

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13
Q

cell wall: major functions - 6

A

Protection (environmental stress, pathogenes, water loss)

Gives a definite shape

Enables information transport to the exterior

Helps in osmotic-regulation, prevents water loss

Transport processes

ion exchange, mineral uptake (root hairs)

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14
Q

what is the “skeletal structure” of the cell wall

A

The cellulose:

1,4 linked β–D glucose chain

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15
Q
  1. primary cell wall
  2. secondary cell wall
  3. what can decompose the cell wall?
A

1.
Primary cell wall:
web of microfibrils + auxin ->loosened structure, formation of new fibrils -> increasing cell wall surface (the “original”, basic cell wall)

  1. Secondary:
    new transverse layers of cellulose fibrils (increased strenght) (layers on top of the primary wall – like padding a brick wall, more secondary wall, decreasing digestibility)

Outer (centrifugal) thickening In case of spores and pollens Spikes, grains, appendages…

Inner thickening: strengthening and protection

3.
Cellulase enzymes ->decomposition of cell wall (secretory ducts, transport vessels)

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16
Q

matrix substances of the cell wall: 3

A

Pectins (soluble fiber)
- high proportion in fruits and storage organs

Hemicellulose
- cross-link between pectins and cellulose (e.g.: arabinoxylan)

Proteins

  • soluble (hydrolitic enzymes, peroxidases)
  • insoluble (=extensins) – web-like structure
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17
Q

incrustations of the cell wall: 3

A

Pigments, Mucilage
- storage of water, gelling effect, Inorganic compounds – in plant hairs -> irritation

Lignin (wood)
- phenolic polymers consists of coumaryl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol, sinapyl alcohol Mainly in the secondary wall (lignification) Increase rigidity Decrease digestibility!

Suberin (cork)
- polymers of aromatic and aliphatic compounds Waterproof layer, decreasing evaporation Decreasing digestibility!

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18
Q

adcrustations

where, what: 2

A

On cell wall surface

lipid coating: Wax or cutin
Water insulators: decreasing evaporation

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19
Q

plasmodesmata

A

Channels traverse the cell walls – smooth ER tubes and protein filaments Direct transport between cells

Large number in young cells, later decreasing abundance

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20
Q

Permanent tissues: dermal tissues

A

External part of the plant

Primary dermal tissue: epidermis

Secondary dermal tissue: epidermal cells + stomata

Stomata types: amaryllis type bean shaped, grass-type dumbbell shape

21
Q

nutritional value of dermal tissues

A

Function: absorb water and minerals

Gas exchange for photosynthesis=nutrition

Contains chlorophylls

Subsidiary cell: water and ion reservoirs

22
Q

the digestibility of dermal tissues

  1. about the morphology (8)
  2. functions and chemicals (3)
A

1.
Often multiple cell layers, but in general one

Outer cell wall can be covered with cutine, wax/cork

Papillae(raised thickeng)

petal cells (epidermal appendages, outbulgings)

for grass and sedge plants are sharp and coarse-> irritation

Trichomes (epidermal appendages, hair-like)

Bristle hairs (stiff hair)

Clinging hair

2.
Function: protection against herbivores

In sec. Dermal tissue: accumulation of tannins, glycosides in bark!

Cause irritation, bezoars, rough texture-> animals reluctant to eat

23
Q

rhizodermis (root epidermis)

A

Prim. Dermal tissue of young roots

Major differences from epidermis

Root hairs, no stomata/cuticule/chlorophylls

24
Q

secondary and tertiary dermal tissues

  1. secondary, how made
  2. tertiary, how made
A

1.
Layer of cork cells are prod. Of the cortex bleow the epidermis, these cells willl later multiply as result of cell division and prod. Sec. Dermal tissues = periderm
(secondary growth incr. thickness)

  1. If phloem(living tissue) prod. the dermal tissue: tertiary
    –>Accumilation of sec. Metabolites in bark aka phloem
25
Q

ground tissues: parenchyma (4)

A

Most abundant tissue w/slightly differentiated cells

Cells are isodiametric

Have only primary wall, large vacoules and prominent intercellular cells

Function: basic metbolism, storage, aeration

26
Q

chloroenchyma

A

Parenchymal cells that contain chloroplast -> photosynthetic function

Palisade, spongy

27
Q

storage parenchyma

A

Lots of leukoplastids – fatty acids, starch, protein-> high nutruitive value

28
Q

water storage parenchyma

A

Tissue of succulent plants

Thin cell wall, large vacuoles, water absorption in the form of mucilage

29
Q

aerenchyma

A

Parenchyma of waterplants and species living in moist habitats

Large intercellular cavities – important for oxygen supply and gas exhange

Low nutritive value

Secretory tissues

30
Q

secretion types of parenchyma

  1. intracellular secretion
  2. extracellular secretion
  3. other: 3
A

1.
Intracellular secretion:
- Metabolites secreted into vacuoles or cell wall

2.
Extracellular secretion:
- A cellgroup that secrete metabollites into intercellular space

  • Endogenous: ducts, cavities (Ducts: for protection and to seal wounds from insect and disease entry)
  • Exogenous: onto epidermal surface through glands

3.
Hydathodes: water through pores

Salt glands

Nectar glands: sugar rich liquid w/amino acids for pollinators

31
Q

supporting or mechanical tissues

A

Mech. Strength to growing organs

Differentiates from parenchymal cells w/ cell wall thickening

32
Q

(supporting or mechanical tissues): Chollenchyma “glue”

A

Supportoing tissue of young dicots

Contain living cytoplasms

High tearing resistance, provides flexibility – digestibility

Thickened cells

33
Q

supporting or mechanical tissues: Sclerenchyma

A

Dead cells with evenly thickened cell wall

Lignin is deposited into cell wall – low digestibility

34
Q

xylem

A

(wood)

Water and minerals from root to leaves – primarely dead cells

Structure

Tracheids – the “pipe”

Vessels : thick lignified wall, elements are shorts and broad

Wood parenchyma: the only living cells: storage and secretion

fibers

35
Q

phloem

A

(bark)

Sugars, - primary composed of living cells

Structure

Sieve cells: similar to tracheids, connect to eachother w/ piths

Sieve tubes: mainly in angiosperms

Companion cells: metabolic functions of the sieve tube elements, transport and metabolic processes sugar concentration depends on the location of the cells, ex by the leaves of by the root

Fibers

Phloem parenchyma: mainly food storage

36
Q

vascular bundles:

  1. the different types
  2. bundle sheath
A

1.
Simple bundles: separate bundles for xylem and phloem

Compounds bundles: both x and p elements

  • Concentric bundles: x and p elements form concentric rings in cross section
  • Collateral bundles: x and p adjpining each other side by side

2.
parenchymal or sclerenchymal ring around vascular bundles, temporary storage for nutrients, protection of the bundle

37
Q

Histology of the root

  1. what are the mature regions
  2. rhizodermis
  3. cortex
  4. endodermis
  5. casparian strip
  6. stele
  7. pith
A

1.
Mature regions: dermal tissue, cortex and stele

2.
root hairs – generally one cell layer, increase the surface area

3.
mult. Layers of parenhcymal cells or aerenchima cells for water plants

4.
Innermost layer: endodermis

5.
Casparian strip (nonpolar) which regulates the water transport

6.
Stele - central part of root - vascular tissue and pericycle around it

  1. Pith: parenchymal cell layers for storage
    - Simple xylem and phloem: alternating bundles
38
Q

histology of older roots

A

New root cap bc cell. Div. In pericycle

Prod of vascular cambium: thickening of the root

Decreasing digestibility – thickened walls

39
Q

histology of storage roots

A

General lack of mechanical tissues ex carrot

Cambia are arranged is concentric rings

More parenchymal cells, better digestibility

40
Q

histology of the stem

A

Shoot apex: initial cells->meristems->permanent tissues

Epidermis: one cell layer in gen., cuticle, wax, appendages

Cortex

Monocots: not sep into cotex and pith->storage parenchyma

Dicots: chloroenchyma, mechanical tissues and less storage parenchyma

Waterplants. Aerenchyma

Stele

Pith, vascualr bundles w/rays and if hollow_: pith cavity

41
Q

secondary growth

A

Higher prop. Of lignified cells-> decreased digestibility

Rare in monocots

Four major types in dicots

42
Q

Differentiation of the dermal tissues

A

Epidermis-periderm-rhytidome
(outer - middle - inner(dead phloem)

after comes phloem then xylem

43
Q

histology of the wood: 4 types

A

Softwood: less fibres and lignification

Hardwood: more fibres and lignification

Heartwood: no watercond. Parenchymal cells block the vessels

Sapwood: conduction of water and nutrients

44
Q

histology of the leaves

  1. functions
  2. histological structures found on the leaf
  3. kranz leaf anatomy
  4. leaf primordia
A
  1. Protect the stem apex

nervation Transport, mechanical stability

Determined growth, kalanchoe spp. Is unntak

2.
Dermal tissues
- Cuticle, wax, appendages, -1 cell layer

  1. Kranz leaf anatomy describes the leaf anatomy of a c4 plant specilized for better CO2 fixation
  2. Young leaves: leaf primordia (its earliest recognizable stage)
45
Q

histology of flower: sepals, petals and tepals

A

Similar structure to leaves

Pigments in vacoules, nutrient supply

Poor nutritive value

Papillae and hairs

46
Q

histology of flower: stamens and pollen

A

Pollen wall outer layer: sporopollenin

Pollenkitt on pollen for adhesiveness (allergic reactions)

Stamens are modified leaves

47
Q

histology of flower: pistil

A

Modified leaf

Sticky surface to catch pollens

Chloroenchyma->storage parenchyma

48
Q

histology of the seeds:

A

Taxon specific cells

Parenchymal cells + sclereids

(shelled) Thick seed coat -> digestive problems

Multiple layer storage parenchimal cells

Thin hemicellullose walls: good digestibility, release of nutrients

49
Q

histology of the fruit

  1. different types of parenchyma, secretion
  2. exocarp
  3. mesocarp
  4. endocarp
A

1.
Fleshy fruits: storage parenchyma

Dried fruits: sclerenchyma

In ex drupe the two types are combined

Secretory cavities: secondary metabolites

2.
Exocarp
- 1 cell layer with cuticle, wax, hairs – can be lignified

  1. Mesocarp
    - In fleshy fruits: miltilayered parenchyma for storage
    - In dried fruits: consists of sclereids
4.
Endocarp 
- One/miltilayered cells 
- Meso and endocarp can be fused 
- Hard, consists of sclereids

botany (7 decks)

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