A&P Final Flashcards
What is Pathophysiology
Study of the effects of diseases in the body
What is the role of the diaphragm
Controls breathing by contracting and relaxing during inhalation and exhalation
3 properties of water
- ) Essential reactant in chemical reactions of living systems
- ) Very high heat capacity
- ) Excellent solvent
What is a tumor
Mass produced by abnormal cell growth and division
What are benign tumors
Tumors which are usually encapsulated and rarely life threatening
What are malignant tumors
Tumors that spread from their original location through invasion, can also spread to distant tissues through the blood of lymph
What is osmosis
Passive process in which water moves from high concentration to low concentration
What is diffusion
Passive process in which molecules are in constant motion and collide in to each other and spread out from high concentration to low
What is an acid
chemical that neutralizes bases. pH under 7
What is a base
substance that neutralizes acids. pH over 7
What are buffers
a solution that resists changes in pH
What are proteins
Vital molecules that carry out many functions throughout the body
What is skeletal muscle tissue
voluntary muscle tissue that moves or stabilizes position of the body. MULTINUCLEATED
What is cardiac muscle tissue?
Striated involuntary muscle found only in heart
What is smooth muscle
Nonstriated involuntary muscle found in walls of blood vessels, around hollow organs, and around respiratory, digestive and reproductive tracts
Fun fact about smooth muscle
It can regenerate after injury
Effects of aging on muscle tissues
Body’s ability to repair damaged tissue decreases
Cancer is more likely to occur
Where is cilia found
On the surface of epithelial cells
What is the role of cilia
Used to move materials across the surface
What are the sebaceous glands?
Oil glands that discharge oily lipid secretion (sebum) into hair follicles.
What is the structure of hair?
Hair root which anchors the hair to skin and hair shaft which is the part we see on the surface
Functions of Hair
- Protects scalp from uv light
- Insulation for skull
- prevents entry of foreign objects into nose, eyes, and ears
What are gliding joints?
Flat faces that slide across each other
ex. flat bones of wrist and ankles
What are hinge joints
permit angular movement in one plane
ex. elbow, knee
What are Condylar Joints
oval surface nestled within a depression on opposing surface
ex. wrist
What are saddle joints?
two bones that have concave face on one side and convex on the other
ex. of the thumb
What are pivot joints
permit rotation only
ex. in the neck to allow head rotation
Ball-and-socket joints
occur where the end of one bone is a round head that nests in the cup-shape depression in another bone
ex. shoulder joint
What is supination?
Turning palm to face front
What is pronation
turning palm to face back
What is extension
Movement to increase the angle
What is flexion
movement to decrease the angle between articulating bones relative to anatomical position
What are the roles of fontanelles
function to allow the baby’s brain to grow during the first year of life and to allow the baby’s head to pass through the birth canal
Action at the elbow: What are the flexor muscle
- Biceps Brachii
- Brachialis
- Brachioradialis
Action at the elbow: What is the extensor muscle
Triceps brachii
Action at the ankle: What are the flexor muscles
- Tibialis anterior
- Fibularis tertius
Action at the ankle: What are the extensor muscles
- Gastrocnemius
- Fibularis brevis
- Fibularis longus
- Plantaris
- Soleus
- Tibialis posterior
How do muscles maintain body temperature
Muscle contractions generate heat
ex. shivering
How many cervical spinal nerves are there
8
How many thoracic spinal nerves are there
12
How many lumbar spinal nerves are there
5
How many Sacral spinal nerves are there
5
How many coccygeal spinal nerves are there
1
What shape does the gray matter of the spinal cord make
rough H or butterfly
What are the three horns of the gray matter of the spinal cord called
Posterior gray horn, lateral gray horn, anterior gray horn
Three columns of the white matter of the spinal cord
Posterior white column, lateral white column, anterior white column
What are the four lobes of the brain
Temporal, parietal, frontal, occipital
What is the function of the temporal lobe
Processes memories, sound sight and touch. Contains the auditory cortex and olfactory cortex
What is the function of the Occipital lobe
Primarily for vision. Contains visual cortex
What is the function of the frontal lobe
Cognitive functions, and control of voluntary movement. Contains the gustatory cortex
What is the function of the parietal lobe
Processes information on temperature, taste, touch, and movement
Which lobe is the Wernicke’s Area in and what is it for?
In the temporal lobe. It integrates sensory informtion and visual and auditory memory
Which lobe is Broca’s area in and what is its function
Frontal lobe. It is the speech center. It regulates breathing and vocalization required for speech
Function of Olfactory nerves and what are their roman numeral
Carry sensory information concerning sense of smell. Roman numeral: I
Function of optic nerves and their roman numeral
Carry sensory visual information from eyes to brain
roman numeral: II
Function of Oculomotor nerves and their roman numeral
Motor nerves that innervate the eye muscles that move the eyeball and control pupil size
Roman numeral III
Function of trochlear nerves and their roman numeral
Motor nerves that innervate the superior oblique muscle of the eyes
Roman numeral IV
Function of Trigeminal Nerves and their roman numeral
Mixed nerves (sensory/motor) provides sensory input from opthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular (all around face) and motor control to chewing muscles Roman numeral V
Function of abducens nerves and their roman numeral
Motor nerves that innervate the rectus eye muscle
Roman numeral VI
Function of the facial nerves and their roman numeral
Mixed nerves. Sensory nerves monitor proprioception in the face and provide taste information. Motor nerves provide facial expressions and control tear and salivary gllands
Roman Numeral VII
Function and roman numeral of Vetibulocochlear nerves
Sensory nerves respond to receptors in the ear that convey info about balance and position and sense of hearing
Roman numeral VIII
Function and roman numeral of glossopharyngeal nerves
mixed nerves. sensory provide taste sensation and monitor BP and blood gases
motor controls muscles used in swallowing
roman numeral IX
Function and roman numeral of Vagus nerves
Mixed nerves. sensory input from ears, diaphragm, taste receptors, and visceral receptors. Motor control muscle of pharynx and esophagus as well as ANS output to cardiac muscle
roman numeral X
Function and roman numeral of accessory nerves
motor nerves innervating muscles of the head and neck
roman numeral XI
Function and roman numeral of hypoglossal nerves
provide voluntary motor control of the tongue
roman numeral XII
What are nociceptors
Receptors that respond to pain
What are the 3 types of pain and a brief description
- Fast pain-Localized, transmits quickly due to myelinated axons
- Slow pain- identified as a general area involved (not localized)
- Referred pain-perception of pain is in an unrelated to area of body
What is insulin?
Hormone that decreases blood glucose
What is the role of the nervous system
maintains homeostasis
What hormones are released by the posterior pituitary
ADH and Oxytocin
What is the role of erythropoietin
stimulates bone marrow to produce more red blood cells which increases the oxygen carrying capacity
Structure of Hemoglobin
Composed of two pairs of globular proteins, each pair contains a heme
Function of Hemoglobin
maintain O2 homeostasis
What are white blood cells
cells that help to defend the body against pathogens. they also remove toxins, wastes, and abnormal or damaged cells
What are four types of WBCs
Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Lymphocytes, and Basophils
Describe neutrophils
- Make up 50-70% of circulating WBCs
- usually first WBC to arrive at injury site
- Very active phagocytes
Describe Eosinophils
- make up 2-4% of circulating WBCs
- are phagocytic but also attack through exocytosis of toxic compounds
Describe Basophils
- rare, less than 1%
- release heparin and histamine
Describe lymphocytes
- 20-40% of circulating WBCs
- some attack foreign cells, others secrete antibodies
What are platelets
element in blood that initiates clotting process and helps to close injured blood vessels
What is anemia
Reduction in the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity
What is bradycardia
heart rate slower than 60 bpm
What is tachycardia
Heart rate faster than 100 bpm
How does blood return to the from systemic circulation
through veins and through the vena cava
What is the function of the ventricles
right ventricle- pumps blood into the pulmonary circuit
left ventricle- pumps blood into the systemic circuit
Function of the atria
right atrium- receives blood from the systemic circuit
left atrium- receives blood from the pulmonary circuit
What are the layers of the heart wall
- Epicardium-outermost
- Myocardium-muscular middle layer
- Endocardium- Covers insides of chambers and heart valves
What is the tricuspid valve
right atrioventricular valve
What is the function of the tricuspid valve
To prevent back-flow of blood back into the atrium
Where is the tricuspid valve located?
between the right atrium and right ventricle
How is ADH involved in cardiovascular regulation
Results in peripheral vasoconstriction which elevates BP
How is Angiotensin involved in cardiovascular regulation
When BP decreases the kidneys secrete renin which converts angiotensin to angiotensin II which stimulates cardiac output and arteriolar constriction to increase BP
How is Erythropoietin involved in cardiovascular regulation
released by kidneys when BP drops or plasma oxygen drops and stimulates red blood cell production to increase blood volume and BP and improve oxygen-carrying capacity
What changes the viscosity of blood?
Changes in plasma proteins or hematocrit (decreased hematocrit=less viscous)
How do changes in blood viscosity affect it’s flow
Low-viscosity blood can flow at low pressures but high-viscosity blood can only flow under high pressures
How does placental blood supply work?
- deoxygenated blood from fetus flows through umbilical arteies
- CO2 cross to mother while O2 difuses from mother to fetus
What is systolic pressure?
Peak pressure measured during ventricular contraction
What is diastolic pressure
Minimum pressure at the end of ventricular relaxation
Role of Arteries
Carry blood away from the heart
Role of veins
return blood to the heart
Role of capillaries
Where chemical and gaseous exchange occurs
What happens when the immune system does not function properly
may have immunodeficiency disease
What is SCID
Severe combined immunodeficiency disease. Happens when infants fail to develop cell-mediated or antibody-mediated immunity
What is AIDS
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. Is a result of viral destruction of helper T cells. causing a weakened immune system
Structure of antibodies
Y-shaped protein with two parallel pairs of polypeptide chains
6 functions of antibodies
- Neutralization- prevents antigen from binding to cell
- Precipitation and agglutination
- Activation of complement
- Attract phagocytes
- Enhance phagocytosis
- Stimulate inflammation
Dysfunctions of the lymph nodes
Lymphedema- swelling due to accumulation of fluid in the tissues
Role of T cells
- Cytotoxic T cells, directly attack foreign cells
- Helper T cells, Stimulate T and B cells
- Suppressor T cells, inhibit T and B cells
Role of B cells
Secrete antibodies and are responsible for antibody-mediated immunity
What is the role of the spleen
- filters blood, removing abnormal blood cells and components
- Stores iron
Where is the spleen located
between stomach, left kidney, and diaphragm
Respiratory changes at birth
- Powerful contractions of muscles of inspiration overcome surface tension to inflate lungs,
- drop of pressure that pulls are into lungs also pulls blood into pulmonary vessels
Respiratory system before delivery
Pulmonary vessels are collapsed, lungs contain no air
What happens during inhalation
Increase in volume, decrease in pressure inside.
Lower Pi than Po= air is drawn inside the lungs
What happens during exhalation
Decrease in volume, increase in pressure inside. Higher Pi than Po= air is drawn out of lungs
What is cystic fibrosis
inherited disease causing sticky secretions that block passageways and make it difficult to breathe and leads to frequent bacterial infections
What is pneumonia
an inflammation of the lungs due to bacterial or viral infection.Fluid collects in the alveoli and bronchioles swell restricting air flow, results in deterioration of respiratory function
What is tuberculosis
bacterial infection of the lungs that can spread to other organs
Role of surfactant
Helps keep alveoli open by reduces surface tension
What is hypoxia
Low tissue oxygen
Why is Anoxia
Supply of oxygen is completely cut off
What is the larynx
voicebox
3 largest cartilages of the larynx
- Epiglottis
- Thyroid cartilage
- Cricoid cartilage
