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Semester 2 > A&P Chemistry > Flashcards

A&P Chemistry Flashcards

1
Q

Atomic number

A

Total number of protons in an atom

determines what type of atom it is

NO 2 elements with the same number of protons

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2
Q

Atomic number and electrons

A

Atoms usually contain the same number of protons and electrons

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3
Q

Mass number

A

Total number of protons and neutrons in an atom

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4
Q

Element

A

Substance composed only of atoms with same atomic number

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5
Q

Isotopes

A

Atoms with same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons

Different mass number

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6
Q

Atomic Mass

A

Actual mass of an atom of a specific isotope

Measured in atomic mass units (amu) or daltons

One amu = 1/12 mass of a carbon-12 atom

1 amu = Very close to the weight of one proton or one neutron

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7
Q

Atomic Weight

A

average mass of an element, including different isotopes in proportion

avgmass of all the isotopes of an atom

close to mass number of most common isotope

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8
Q

elements

A

118 total known elements, 94 natural, 24 can be physically or chemically derived

make up both living and non-living matter

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9
Q

Four elements account for 96% of elements in the body

A

Oxygen (65%)
Carbon (19%)
Hydrogen (10%)
Nitrogen (3%)

CHON

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10
Q

8 elements = 3.8%

A

Sulphur, sodium, chlorine, calcium, phosphorus, iron, magnesium, & potassium

SSCCPIMP

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11
Q

Trace elements (<0.2%) of others

A

aluminum, boron, fluorine, zinc, iodine, tin, selenium, chromium, cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum, vanadium

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12
Q

Atoms are electrically neutral

A

Every positive proton is balanced by a negative electron

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13
Q

unfilled valence shell

A

Atoms with unfilled valence shell are reactive and tend to react with other atoms to fill outer shell

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14
Q

full outer shells are inert

A

Do not readily react with other atoms; more stable

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15
Q

Atoms that have gained or lost electrons are no longer electrically neutral and become…

A

ions

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16
Q

positive ion

A

Called a positive ion or cation

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17
Q

negative ion

A

Called a negative ion or anion

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18
Q

difference between a molecule and a compound

A

Molecules = when 2 or more atoms share electrons and form chemical bonds

Compounds = a combination of 2 or more different elements

all compounds are molecules, Not all molecules are compounds

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19
Q

chemical bonds

A

Ionic bonds
covalent bonds
hydrogen bonds

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20
Q

chemical bonding

A

atoms want to fill there valence shells by either receiving, donating, or sharing electrons

This creates chemical bonding

Chemical bonding creates molecules

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21
Q

Ionic bonds

A

electrical attraction between cations and anions

Involve transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another to achieve stability

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22
Q

Ionic bonds are…

A

These are relatively strong when NOT in solution, but VERY weak when placed in solution

When molecules with ionic bonds are placed in solvent (water) they tend to dissociate (break apart) into ions

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23
Q

electrolytes

A

When molecules with ionic bonds are placed in solution they tend to dissociate (break apart) into ions

These ions are then called electrolytes

Example: NaCl dissociates into the electrolytes Na+ & Cl-

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24
Q

When molecules with ionic bonds are placed in solution (water) they tend to dissociate (break apart) into ions, which are called…

A

electrolytes

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25
Q

Covalent bonds

A

Involve sharing of electrons between atoms

VERY STRONG bonds (compared to ionic bonds)

single, double, triple covalent bonds

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26
Q

Nonpolar covalent molecules

polar covalent molecules

A

NONPOLAR
Electrons shared equally between atoms

No electrical charge on the molecule

Therefore, do not interact with other molecules

POLAR
Electrons are NOT shared equally between atoms

Forms because one atom has a stronger ‘pull’ on the electrons

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27
Q

electronegativity

A

one atom has a stronger ‘pull’ on the electrons

Electronegativity: how strongly an atom attracts a bonding pair of electrons to itself

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28
Q

electronegativity is affected by…

A

Atomic radius:
Smaller = greater electronegativity

Nuclear charge:
more positive = greater electronegativity

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29
Q

Hydrogen bonds

A

a polar covalent molecule containing hydrogen

force of attraction between a partially positive hydrogen atom in a polar molecule and another molecule or atom with a partial negative charge

WEAKEST of the bonds discussed

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30
Q

The hydrogen bonds between water molecules = specific properties

A

Surface tension

Heat capacity

water acts as a solvent

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31
Q

periodic table rows

periodic table groups

A

horizontal “rows” = periods/series

Each element in the same period has the same number of electron shells

vertical “groups” =

Each element in the same groups has the same number of valence electrons

except helium = 2 valence e

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32
Q

of electrons

find on periodic table:
Atomic symbol
Atomic #
Atomic mass (weight?)
# of protons

A

find on periodic table

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33
Q

Isotopes

A

Atoms with same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons

Different mass number

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34
Q

Radioactive isotopes

A

isotopes that are highly unstable and therefore are prone to decaying which causes radioactivity

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35
Q

Half-Life

A

Half-life = time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample of that isotope to decay into a more stable form

Some are days, others may be 1000s of years

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36
Q

Free Radicals

A

Atoms/molecules with an unpaired electron in its outermost shell

Free radicals are produced in normal metabolic processes

are highly reactive and can damage the body

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37
Q

ways to remove free radicals

A

Enzymes
Antioxidants

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38
Q

Antioxidants

A

such as vitamin E, carotene, lycopene

If the production of free radicals overwhelms the body’s ability to deal with them, damage can occur

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39
Q

too many free radicals, reasons

A

sunlight
Ozone
Smoke
heavy metals
Radiation
Asbestos
other toxic chemicals

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40
Q

what do free radicals do?

A

Free radicals ‘steal’ electrons from other molecules by a process called oxidation.

“OXIDATIVE STRESS”
oxidizes molecule
causes cellular damage

Oxidation is Loss (of electron)
Reduction is Gain (“)

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41
Q

chronic diseases are the direct result or correlated with oxidative stress

A
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42
Q

types of chemical reaction (2 types, and 5 examples)

A

exergonic and endergonic chemical reactions

types of chemical reactions:
Anabolic
Catabolic
Exchange
Reversible
Redox

understand how “Chemical Reactions” are different from “Chemical bonds” and how they’re related

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43
Q

Chemical Reactions are…

A

chemical changes which form new substances

Chemical bonds in the reactants (reacting molecules) are broken; this takes in energy.

New chemical bonds form to make the products; this gives out energy.

reactants (starting) –>
products (end)

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44
Q

exergonic vs endergonic reaction

A

If a reaction releases energy it is called an exergonic reaction

REACTANTS –> Energy + Products

If a reaction absorbs energy it is called an endergonic reaction

ENERGY + REACTANTS –> Products

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45
Q

exergonic, endergonic reaction (specific examples)

A

Digestion
Glycolysis (breakdown of glucose which yields ATP)

endergonic:
Synthesis reactions such as creating glycogen from glucose (storing excess glucose)– glycogenesis

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46
Q

Activation Energy

A

All chemical reactions require an initial amount of energy to occur (activation energy)

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47
Q

efficient chemical reactions =

A

By coupling reactions, this allows the body to utilize the energy released in the most efficient way possible

the energy released from 1 reaction is used to fuel another

Energy is never created or destroyed but simply converted to another form (law of conservation of energy)

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48
Q

two ways to make chemical reactions more efficient

A

coupling reactions

catalysts (enzymes) – lower activation energy

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49
Q

catalysts (e.g. enzymes)

A

substances which increase the rate of reactions without being consumed themselves (e.g. enzymes)

One way these work is by lowering the activation energy

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50
Q

Anabolism (Synthesis reactions)

A

endergonic

use up energy by joining small molecules (“building up”) to make larger/more complex ones

Anabolism is powered by catabolism (uses nutrients from the food we digest to build the tissues and organs we need to grow and repair)

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51
Q

synthesis reaction (Dehydration synthesis)

A

Dehydration reactions are a type of anabolic reactions

(Dehydration synthesis)

Formation of a complex molecule by removing a water molecule

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52
Q

Catabolism

A

decomposition reaction

Breakdown of nutrients for absorption into cells and tissues for immediate body use

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53
Q

Decomposition Reaction (Hydrolysis)

A

water breaks down molecule

Components of water molecule (H and O H) are added to the fragments

majority of catabolic reactions in the body are hydrolysis reactions

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54
Q

Exchange Reactions

A

cations and anions that were partners in the reactants are interchanged in the products

exchange reactions, the products must remain electrically neutral

AB + CD –> AD + BC

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55
Q

Reversible Reactions

A

eversible reaction is constantly going between reactants and products

At equilibrium, the rate of each reaction is equal

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56
Q

Reversible reaction example

A

Glycogen breaks down into glucose + ATP during catabolism (when you need energy)

But in anabolism (when you have excess energy), glucose is converted to glycogen for storage (to be used another time)

glycogenolysis
glycogenesis

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57
Q

exchange reaction example

A

Rust (Fe2O3) can be dissolved by hydrochloric acid (HCl)

“buffer” systems to stop the body from becoming too acidic

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58
Q

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (REDOX)

A

reactions that are concerned with the transfer of electrons between atoms and molecules

Oxidation refers to the loss of electrons; in the process the oxidized substance releases energy

Reduction refers to the gain of electrons; in the process the reduced substance gains energy

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59
Q

oxidation reduction reaction example

A

When a food molecule, such as glucose, is oxidized, it produces energy

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60
Q

inorganic compounds

organic compounds

A

Inorganic compounds include compounds NOT containing carbon and are usually simple, this includes water

Organic compounds ALWAYS contain carbon and hydrogen
May contain other elements as well, but must contain carbon and hydrogen

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61
Q

organic compounds must contain…

A

carbon and hydrogen

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62
Q

Fluid distribution in the body

A

In males = approximately 60% of body mass

in females = approximately 55%

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63
Q

fluid composition

A

2/3 of the water in the body is intracellular (Cytoplasm)

1/3 is extracellular

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64
Q

extracellular fluid composition

A

(80% of ECF) Interstitial/intercellular
fluid in between cells, BUT not in the blood

(20% of ECF)
Plasma
the liquid component of blood – only in blood vessels

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65
Q

water properties

A

Acts as a solvent
Acts as a chemical reactant
High heat capacity
Acts as a lubricant

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66
Q

solvent and solute

A

Solutions are made up of solvents (the liquid factor) and solute

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67
Q

water as solvent in ECF & ICF

A

O2, CO2, glucose, electrolytes, hormones, etc

storing/transporting molecules:

1) Gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide

2) Nutrients such as glucose

3) Electrolytes like Na+ and Cl- that are essential to bodily functions

4) Hormones which send signals throughout the body

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68
Q

NaCl vs H2O (Solvent properties of water)

A

Anions (Cl-) surrounded by positive poles of water molecules

Cations (Na+) surrounded by negative poles of water molecules

This keeps the Na+ and Cl- in solution as electrolytes

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69
Q

Hydrophilic “water loving” (Solutes)

A

Hydrophilic molecules are polar or charged

Polar covalent bonds or ionic bonds

“like” interacting with water

very easily dissolve in water.

Examples: glucose & salts

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70
Q

Hydrophobic “water fearing” (solutes/compounds)

A

Hydrophobic molecules are non-polar or carry no charge

do not “like” interacting with water

will not dissolve

Examples: fats and oils

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71
Q

Water as a Chemical Reactant

A

hydrolysis & dehydration reactions

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72
Q

The Heat Capacity of Water

A

heat capacity = quantity of heat required to raise temperature of a unit mass of substance by 1°C

Water has a high heat capacity, meaning it takes a lot of heat to raise the temperature of water compared to some other liquids

hydrogen bonds between water molecules must be broken, which requires energy (so more heat required)

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73
Q

Water as a Lubricant

A

Little friction between water molecules, so thin layer of water reduces friction between surfaces

joints and for lining body cavities

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74
Q

Mixture
Colloid
Suspension
Viscosity
Mole

A
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75
Q

Mixture

A

= combination of physically blendedelements and/or compounds that are NOTheld together by chemical bonds

Example: The air we breathe is a mixture of O2, H2, N2, & CO2.

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76
Q

three types of liquid mixtures

A

Solutions
Colloids
Suspensions

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77
Q

Solution

A

liquid mixture where the solute(minor component) is uniformly distributedwithin the solvent (major component)

Particles are < 1 nm and cannot be seen with the naked eye

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78
Q

Colloid

A

a solution where the solutes arelarge enough to scatter light

Particle size are 1 nm to 1000 nm

An example is fog

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79
Q

Suspension

A

a mixture of solutes within asolutionwhich settle out overa period of time into theirdifferent components
Particle size is > 1000 nm

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80
Q

suspension example

A

(blood)
If left over time, the cells in blood will settle into their components (plasma/RBC/WBC/platelets)

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81
Q

Viscosity

A

fluid’s resistance toflow

“thicker” a substance, the more viscous it is and therefore the slower itflows(more internal friction)

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82
Q

Concentration of Solutions (Molarity)

A

of molecules in a given volume of solution

mass per volume percentage

Molarity:
units of moles per liter (mol/L)

1 Mole of atoms = 6.022 x 10^23 (Avogadro’s number)

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83
Q

molarity & moles

A

one mole of any given element always contains the same number of atoms as one mole of another element

a mole is equal to the quantity with a weight (in grams) equal to an element’s atomic weight (mass?)

e.g.
12 grams of carbon = 1 mole of carbon (6.022 x 10^23)

1.01 grams of hydrogen = 1 mole of hydrogen

4 grams of helium = 1 mole of helium

etc.

MOLARITY = number of moles of solute per liter of solution

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84
Q

Molar solution (molarity)

A

= a solution with 1 mol of substance dissolved in 1 L of solvent (error, should be SOLUTION, not solvent)

MOLARITY = number of moles of solute per liter of solution

A molar solution of NaCl would have:
1 mol of NaCl per liter of water (1 mol/L)
= 6.022 x 1023 NaCl molecules per liter of water (1 mol/L)
= 58.44 g of NaCl per liter of water (1 mol/L)

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85
Q

acid/base

A

Water (H2O) can dissociate into hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-)

Hydrogen ions (H+):
is what makes solutions acidic

reactive in solution

can break chemical bonds and disrupt cell and tissue function

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86
Q

pH scale

A

The scale ranges from 0 to 14 –> measures concentration of H+ ions

pH 0 = 10^0 (1) mol/L (of H+)
pH 1 = 10^-1 (0.1) mol/L (of H+)

Acidic: below 7
Contains more H+ than OH-

Neutral: 7
Contains equal H+ and OH-

Basic: above 7
Contains more OH- than H+

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87
Q

pH of blood

A

the pH of blood:
7.35 to 7.45

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88
Q

7.35–7.45

A

Outside this range damages cells and tissues by:

1) Breaking chemical bonds
2) Changing shapes of proteins
3) Altering cellular functions

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89
Q

acidosis and alkalosis

A

Acidosis = below 7.35 blood pH

Alkalosis = above 7.45 blood pH

death = below 7 blood pH
death = above 7.8 blood pH

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90
Q

Acid

A

solute that releases H+ ion (I.e. PROTON DONOR)

STRONG ACID:
HCl (Hydrochloric Acid)

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91
Q

Base

A

solute that removes H+ ion
(I.e. PROTON ACCEPTOR)

(May also release Hydroxide Ion – OH-)

STRONG BASE:
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)

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92
Q

Weak Acid & Weak Base

A

Do not dissociate completely

E.g. Carbonic Acid (H2CO3 —> H+ + HCO3 -)

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93
Q

Salt

A

inorganic compound (No Carbon/Hydrogen)

is composed of any CATION (except H+) and any ANION (except hydroxide, OH-)

Held together by ionic bonds

dissociate in water and release electrolytes

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94
Q

Neutralizing Acid + Base to create Salt + Water

A

Acid + Base neutralize to create Salt + Water

H+ & OH- form H2O

remaining molecules (ions) join and form a Salt

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95
Q

example of neutralization reaction

A

Hydrochloric Acid + Sodium Hydroxide = Water + Sodium Chloride

HCl + NaOH = H2O + NaCl

96
Q

Buffer Systems in body

A

1) Carbonic acid –Bicarbonate System

2) Phosphate Buffer System

3) Proteins

97
Q

1) Carbonic acid –Bicarbonate System

A

CO2 + Water <—> Carbonic Acid (H2CO3) <—> H+ + Bicarbonate Ion (HCO3)

Bicarbonate ions (HCO3 -) act as weak bases and carbonic acid (H2CO3) acts as a weak acid

20:1 ratio of Bicarbonate ions to carbonic acid in the blood @ normal pH

Carbonic acid levels controlled by the expiration of CO2

bicarbonate is controlled by renal system

98
Q

respiratory alkalosis vs respiratory acidosis

A

hyperventilating = Alkalosis

not breathing (hypoventilation) = Acidosis

99
Q

2) Phosphate Buffer System

A

Dihydrogen Phosphate = Weak Acid

Monohydrogen Phosphate = Weak Base

H+ + Monohydrogen phospate
—> Dihydrogen phosphate
—> H+ + Monohydrogen phosphate

100
Q

3) Proteins (as buffers)

A

E.g. Albumin in plasma
Hemoglobin in RBC

Amine group of Amino Acids = Weak Base (buffers acids)

Carboxyl group of Amino Acids = Weak Acid (buffers bases)

Albumin = white of egg in Latin

Hemo-globin = blood + little ball (Latin)

101
Q

organic chemistry

A

study of carbon containing compounds (molecules)

larger and more complex than inorganic molecules/compounds

102
Q

what do organic molecules always contain

A

CHON-SP

always contain Carbon

Almost always contain Hydrogen

often oxygen and nitrogen

CHON*

sometimes phosphorus and sulfur

CHON-SP

103
Q

what type of bonds do organic molecules use?

A

Covalent bonds

104
Q

how much of body mass is carbon?

A

Carbon is about 19% (18.5%) of body mass

CHON

105
Q

Carbon atomic mass

A

12.011 amu (daltons)

106
Q

what backbone does Carbon form in organic molecules?

A

Carbon backbone chain/ring of all organic molecules/compounds

107
Q

4 Major categories of organic molecules

A

1) Carbohydrates CHOs

2) Lipids

3) Proteins (via amino acids)

4) Nucleic acids (RNA, DNA)

*ATP – Adenosine triphosphate
–> The “5th” category, but traditionally grouped with nucleic acids because of adenine group

108
Q

3 shape types of Carbon (organic) compounds (backbone)

A

1) straight

2) branched

3) ring

109
Q

1) straight carbon compounds

A

e.g.
methane, propane, simple fatty acids

110
Q

2) branched carbon compounds

A

e.g.
glycogen

111
Q

3) ringed carbon compounds

A

e.g.
glucose

pentose, hexose

112
Q

a type of carbon compound (hydro…)

A

hydrocarbons

ONLY CONSIST OF CARBON AND HYDROGEN

E.g.
Methane, propane, butane

113
Q

the structure of carbon compounds (2 group types)

A

consist of:

A) Functional group
B) Variable group

7 functional groups

Variable group attaches to functional group

114
Q

the 7 major functional groups of carbon compounds

HSCCEPA
holy shit credit card Environmental Protection Agency

A

1) Hydroxyl (contains OH)

2) Sulfhydryl (contain SH)

3) Carbonyl (contains C=O)

4) Carboxyl (contains COOH)

5) Ester

6) Phosphate (contains PO4)

7) Amino (contains NH2)

115
Q

1) Hydroxyl group

A

-OH

commonly found in organic compounds, such as alcohols and carbohydrates

polar and hydrophilic

participate in dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions

116
Q

2) Sulfhydryl group

A

-SH

found as a part of some amino acids

presence of a sulfhydryl group can affect the chemical and physical properties of a molecule, such as its reactivity and ability to form disulfide bonds

117
Q

3) Carbonyl group

A

C=O

composed of acarbonatomdouble-bondedto anoxygenatom

Can be either a KETONE or an ALDEHYDE (shown below)

ketones are breakdown products of fats & proteins

118
Q

4) Carboxyl group

A

COOH

Make up a part of every amino acid

Can act as an acid (e.g. Carboxylic acid)

119
Q

5) Ester group

A

R-CO-OR

found in fats, oils, and triglycerides

120
Q

6) Phosphate group

A

-PO4

key component of ATP and other high energy bonds

key component of DNA/RNA

121
Q

7) Amino group

A

-NH2

Make up a part of every amino acid

Can act as a base to form –NH3+

122
Q

monomer vs polymer

A

monomer = smallest unit of organic molecule

polymer = multiple monomers
created via DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS

E.g.
protein = polymer
amino acid = monomer

polysaccharide = polymer
monosaccharide = monomer
(GLYCOGEN vs GLUCOSE)

*protein/glycogen via dehydration synthesis

123
Q

isomers

A

molecules with same formula but different structure

different reactive properties

C6H12O6 = glucose, but also = fructose, depending on arrangement

glucose/fructose are both MONOMERS,
both have RING shape,
but… FUNCTIONAL GROUPS are arranged differently

124
Q

isomers random example

A

pentane, iso-pentane, neo-pentane

125
Q

carbohydrates

A

CHO ratio of 1:2:1

hydrated carbons CH2O

most have “-ose” suffix

e.g.
glucose, fructose, mannose, ribose

majority used for energy, ATP production

can be stored as glycogen,

or converted to lipids and stored as adipose tissue

126
Q

3 classifications of carbohydrates

A

1) Monosaccharides

2) Disaccharides

3) Polysaccharides

127
Q

1) Monosaccharides

A

Monomer of carbohydrates

e.g.
glucose (blood sugar)
fructose
galactose (milk)
deoxyribose
ribose

majority either PENTOSE or HEXOSE ring structure

pentose = 5 carbon ring
hexose = 6 carbon ring

128
Q

pentose vs hexose

A

common pentoses:
e.g.
deoxyribose
ribose

common hexoses:
e.g.
glucose
fructose
galactose

129
Q

2) Disaccharides

A

2 monosaccharides

via dehydration synthesis

removes H2O

e.g.
Sucrose, leaves C12H22O11
(one H2O removed)

disaccharides e.g.
Sucrose
Lactose
Maltose

130
Q

disaccharides examples

A

Sucrose = glucose + fructose

lactose = glucose + galactose

maltose = glucose + glucose

131
Q

what happens to disaccharides during digestion

A

dehydration synthesis reaction is reversed

HYDROLYSIS occurs:

H2O is added, and product is 2 Monosaccharides

132
Q

lactose intolerance

A

reduced lactase enzyme

body cannot break down lactose (disaccharide)

lactase supplements, or dairy removal

133
Q

3) Polysaccharides

A

up to thousands of Monosaccharides

complex carbohydrates

e.g.
glycogen
starches
cellulose

134
Q

glycogen, where is it stored

A

skeletal muscles and liver

broken down via catabolic reactions when energy is needed

135
Q

what is the term for breaking down of glycogen?

What is the term for formation of glycogen?

The term for breaking down of glucose?

The term for glucose being made from sources such as fats/proteins?

A

Glycogenolysis

glycogenesis

glycolysis

gluconeogenesis

136
Q

what hormones control glycogen breakdown and synthesis?

A

Glucagon, Insulin

137
Q

starches

A

Polysaccharide formed from glucose found in plants (e.g. potatoes and wheat)

Major carbohydrates in the diet

Broken down into glucose during digestion via hydrolysis

138
Q

cellulose

A

Polysaccharide of glucose

Stored in plants, indigestible in humans, but helps with bowel movements, and cleansing of the colon (fiber)

People who consume large amounts of green leafy vegetables have a lower incidence of colon cancer

139
Q

the different types of lipids

A

1) Fatty acids

2) Triglycerides (fats and oils)

3) Phospholipids

4) Steroids

5) Eicosanoids

140
Q

Lipids

A

CHO ratio:

1:2:MUCH LESS

141
Q

lipids function

A

energy storage

cell signaling

membrane structure

and more

142
Q

how much of body is lipids

A

Lipids comprise up to 25% of body mass

143
Q

why are lipids nonpolar

A

LOW OXYGEN

HYDROPHOBIC

float on surface

144
Q

when can lipids dissolve in water?

A

small lipids attached to proteins may dissolve in water

E.g.
Glyco-lipids (sugar fat)
Lipo-proteins (fat protein)

145
Q

1) Fatty acids

A

Fatty acids are simplest of lipids

Consists of a carboxyl group and a hydrocarbon chain

Fatty acids are used to make phospholipids and triglycerides

They can undergo beta-oxidation to make ATP when needed

146
Q

saturated vs unsatured fatty acids

A

Saturated vs Unsaturated Fatty Acids

If the hydrocarbon chain has only single covalent bonds, it’s termed saturated (i.e. it’s completely saturated with hydrogen)

If there is 1 or more double covalent bond, it’s called unsaturated (i.e. it’s only partially saturated with hydrogen)

A saturated fat is a triglyceride rich in saturated fatty acids (more with TGs)

147
Q

Cis vs Trans fatty acids (unsaturated)

A

Cis fatty acids have hydrogen atoms on the same side as the double bond

Trans fatty acids have hydrogen atoms on the opposite side of the double bond

Only occur in small amounts in nature

Solid at room temp, created to replace saturated fats

A trans fat is a triglyceride rich in trans fatty acids (more with TGs)

148
Q

hydrogenation and trans fatty acids

A

Cis fatty acids can be converted to trans form through an industrial process calledhydrogenation (adding hydrogens to vegetable oils)

Hydrogenation increases the shelf life of these products and makes vegetable oils solid

However, it hasbeen shown to elevate the risk of cardiovascular disease by increasingLDLs and decreasingHDLs

149
Q

Monounsaturated vs Polyunsaturated Fatty acids

A

Monounsaturated
1 double covalent bond = 1 kink

Polyunsaturated
More than 1 double covalent bond = 2 or more kinks

A polyunsaturated fat is a triglyceride rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (more with TGs)

150
Q

essential vs non-essential fatty acids (FAs)

A

Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs)
Need to be obtained from the diet

Non-Essential Fatty Acids
Can be made in the body

151
Q

what are essential fatty acids?

A

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) that must be derived from our diets

Our bodies cannot synthesize them

In the diet, these are usually a part of a triglyceride

152
Q

two categories of Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs)

A

Omega-3 fatty acids
Omega-6 fatty acids

153
Q

omega 3 fatty acids

A

First double bond is found on the third carbon from the methyl end

There are 3 forms of omega-3 fatty acids:

1) Alpha linolenic acid (ALA)
2) Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
3) Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)

154
Q

3 Omega 3 fatty acids, where are they found

A

Alpha linolenic acid (ALA) found in walnuts, flaxseed oil, chia seeds, and hemp

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is found in cold-water fatty fish like salmon

Seaweed, nori, spirulina, and chlorellaare only plants with EPA and DHA

155
Q

omega 6 fatty acids

A

First double bond is found on the sixth carbon from the methyl end

There are 4 forms of omega-6 fatty acids, two of which you will likely discuss in nutrition

E.g.
Linoleic acid (LA)
Arachidonic acid (ARA)

156
Q

omega 6 fatty acids, where?

A

Omega-6 Fatty Acids

Found in high amounts in:
Vegetable oils
Soybeans
Nuts and seeds
Eggs

157
Q

Non-essential fatty acids

A

These make up the majority of fatty acids (plant oils and animal fats)

They can be made by our bodies

Examples:
Oleic acid (olive oil, nuts, seeds)
Palmitic acid (animal products)
Stearic acid (Animal products)

158
Q

omega 6 just as important as omega 3

A
159
Q

2) TRIGLYCERIDES

A

1 glycerol molecule with 3 FA (fatty acids) chains

formed by dehydration synthesis

160
Q

how is fat stored in body?

A

Fats are stored in the body as triglycerides in adipocytes (fat cells)

Virtually unlimited capacity to store adipose tissue in various locations throughout the body
Abdomen
Buttocks
Breasts
Thighs
Face
etc

161
Q

more about triglycerides

A

In the diet, 95% of fats are in the form of triglycerides
triglycerides make up oils and fats

Oils
triglycerides that are liquid at room temp
tend to be more unsaturated

Fats
triglycerides that are solid at room temp
tend to be more saturated

162
Q

saturated fats

A

Saturated Fats
Contains FAs of single covalent bonds only (saturated fatty acids)

Found in meats, dairy products (milk, cheese, butter) but also in some plants (coconut & palm oil)

163
Q

monounsaturated fats

A

Monounsaturated Fats
Contains FAs of with one double bond only

Found in olive, canola, peanut, and most other nut oils, avocados

“Healthy” fat

164
Q

polyunsaturated fats

A

Polyunsaturated Fats (PUFAs)
Contains FAs of with more than one double bond
These are omega-3s and omega-6s

Found in sunflower, corn, soybean, and fish oils

“Healthy” fat

165
Q

how triglycerides are broken down

A

Triglycerides are broken down in the digestive tract or in the body (adipocytes) into glycerol and free fatty acids via hydrolysis

Free fatty acids can go to the mitochondria and be used to created ATP (Gluconeogenesis?)

166
Q

3) Phospholipids

A

2 instead of 3 fatty acids

phosphate attached to glycerol

Cell Membrane

amphipathic (polar and non polar components)

phosphate head = polar (hydrophilic)

fatty acid tails = non polar (hydrophobic)

167
Q

(phospho)lipid bilayer

A

cell membranes

168
Q

selectively permeable membrane

A

Molecules that are smaller and non-polar, such as fats, may pass through the membrane easily

Molecules that are polar/hydrophilic may NOT pass through very easily

Examples:
Small nonpolar molecules, such as O2 and CO2, are soluble in the lipid bilayer and therefore can readily cross cell membranes

Glucose can not pass easily (too big)

Proteins usually carry a charge and need a carrier to get through the membrane

169
Q

4) Steroids

A

4 rings of carbon

170
Q

most common steroid in body

A

cholesterol

other steroids made from cholesterol

171
Q

functions of steroids (e.g. cholesterol)

A

regulating metabolism

maintaining the structural integrity of cell membranes

acting as signaling molecules (precursor to hormones and vitamin D)

172
Q

examples of steroids in body

A

Hormones:
Estrogen, testosterone, cortisol

Vitamin D
Required for normal bone growth (is a hormone)

Bile salts
produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder (“emulsify” fats)

173
Q

how do steroids (e.g. cholesterol) aid the plasma membrane?

A

Modulates fluidity so membrane is flexible

Maintains structural integrity, strengthening the membrane and making it resistant to temperature changes

Aids in cell signaling

174
Q

5) Eicosanoids

A

oxidized derivative of 20-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids – usually arachidonic acid (Omega 6)

175
Q

types of eicosanoids

A

Prostaglandins (PGs)
Inflammatory responses, bronchiole dilation, body temperature, blood clots

Leukotrienes (LTs)
Allergic & inflammatory responses

176
Q

Prostaglandins (PGs)

A

Pain perception
Fever production
Blood clotting
Regulates inflammatory response

Medications like aspirin, ibuprofen (Advil), and acetaminophen (Tylenol) all block PG to some degree

177
Q

Leukotrienes (LTs)

A

Made and released from white blood cells (leukocytes) of the immune system

Coordinate and regulate the immune response

178
Q

6) OTHER LIPIDS (including vit A, E, K, and lipoproteins)

A

Carotenes
Precursor to vit A (pigments of rods and cones in the eyes)
Found in beets, carrots, & tomatoes.

Vitamin E
Tissue healing and powerful antioxidant (neutralizes free radicals)

Vitamin K
helps in the formation of blood clots

Lipoproteins
Carry cholesterol and triglycerides around the body

179
Q

Lipoproteins

A

transport triglycerides and cholesterols

water soluble

180
Q

5 types of lipoproteins

A

High-density lipoprotein (HDL)*

Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)*

Very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL)*

Intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL)

Chylomicrons

*Made in the liver

181
Q

which lipoproteins are made in liver

A

HDL
LDL
VLDL

182
Q

HDL

A

High-density lipoprotein (HDL)

High density because they have the highest proportion of protein

Considered “good cholesterol” because takes cholesterol and TGs to the liver to be removed from the system

High levels of HDL reduce your risk of cardiovascular (heart) disease.

183
Q

LDL

A

Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)

Low density because they have the lowest proportion of protein

Considered “bad cholesterol” because takes cholesterol and TGs to cells

If LDL levels are too high, can be deposited in arteries and form plaques
(atherosclerosis)

184
Q

VLDL

A

like LDL but more for TGs than cholesterol

185
Q

IDL

A

Intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDL)
created when VLDLs give up their fatty acids

They’re then either removed by your liver or converted into LDL

186
Q

chylomicrons

A

The largest lipoproteins

Made in enterocytes of the small intestine

Transport dietary fats through the blood

187
Q

proteins percent of body

A

Make up 12-18% of body mass

188
Q

6 types of proteins

A

Structural
Regulatory
Contractile
Immunological
Transport
Catalytic

189
Q

1) structural proteins

A

formation/framework of cells

keratin, collagen

190
Q

2) regulatory protein

A

hormone

insulin
glucagon

191
Q

3) contractile protein

A

actin, myosin

filaments in muscle fibres

192
Q

4) immune proteins

A

form immune cells like WBC

antibodies

193
Q

5) Transport proteins

A

RBC
e.g. Hemoglobin, carry O2, and CO2

cell membranes

194
Q

6) catalyst proteins

A

enzymes

accelerate chemical reactions, lower activation energy

195
Q

monomers of proteins

A

amino acids

196
Q

structure of amino acids

A

carboxyl group (acid)

amine group (base)

side chain (unique to each amino acid)

197
Q

how many amino acids

A

20 amino acids

11 = Non-essential

9 = essential

198
Q

peptide bond

A

B/W THE
N of the amino group (NH2) (base)

AND THE
C of the carboxyl group (COOH) (acid)

199
Q

peptide bond types

A

2 amino acids, 1 peptide bond = dipeptide

3 amino acids, 2 peptide bonds = tripeptide

10-2000 or more peptides = polypeptide (a protein)

200
Q

how peptide bonds are formed/broken

A

formed via dehydration synthesis

broken via hydrolysis

201
Q

4 levels of protein structure

A

primary
secondary
tertiary
quaternary

202
Q

1) primary level of structure of protein

A

amino acid sequence (genetically determined)

Determines the protein and determines the next three structures

203
Q

2) secondary level of structure of protein

A

repeated twisting of neighboring amino acids in the polypeptide chains

either or both:
alpha helices
beta pleated sheets

204
Q

3) tertiary level of structure of protein

A

3-D shape of the polypeptide chain. Secondary structures folding upon themselves

205
Q

4) quaternary level of structure of protein

A

Arrangement of 2 or more polypeptide chains

e.g. hemoglobin

Hemoglobin:
Protein in RBCs
Carries oxygen and CO2

206
Q

protein denaturation

A

Term used to describe the altering or destruction of the protein structure, usually in abnormal states caused by pathological conditions

207
Q

what causes protein denaturation? examples

A

Heat (frying an egg)

Abnormal pH (HCl in stomach)

Chemical exposure

Genetic mutations

208
Q

Enzymes (Catalyst proteins)

A

decrease activation energy

Consist of two portions

Apoenzyme: inactive protein portion

Cofactor: active non-protein portion
Usually vitamins, minerals, or other

209
Q

enzyme vs substrate

A

substrate – material enzyme acts on

substrate enters active site of enzyme

210
Q

enzymes controlled by cell environment

A

E.g.

Pepsinogen only converts to pepsin in presence of HCl

211
Q

NUCLEIC ACIDS

A

CHON-P
(Phosphorus) – no sulfur

1) contain pentose sugar (RIBOSE/DEOXYRIBOSE)

2) contain Nitrogenous base

3) contain phosphate group (PO4)

212
Q

Nucleotide
vs
Nucleoside

A

basic structural unit of DNA/RNA:
1) contain pentose sugar (RIBOSE/DEOXYRIBOSE)

2) contain Nitrogenous base

3) contain phosphate group (PO4)

also structural unit of DNA/RNA
1) contain pentose sugar (RIBOSE/DEOXYRIBOSE)

2) contain Nitrogenous base

3) DOESNT CONTAIN PHOSPHATE GROUP (PO4)

NUCLEOSIDE = precursor for nucleotide

213
Q

DNA vs RNA

A

DNA has 2-deoxyribose sugar

RNA has ribose sugar

214
Q

the 5 Nitrogenous bases

A

PURINES: (PURE AS GOLD)
Adenine
Guanine

PYRAMIDINES: (CUT)
Cytosine
Uracil
Thymine

215
Q

what does DNA form

A

DNA forms genetic material (chromosomes)

ALMOST ALL CELLS:
Not in RBC, and platelets

Present inside nucleus

Consists of “Genes”

216
Q

DNA: Structure

A

Formed by nucleotides:
1) 2-deoxyribose (pentose SUGAR)

2) Nitrogenous Base
(A/G, C/T –NOT URACIL)

3) Phosphate group

217
Q

DNA: Shape

A

double stranded helix

backbone via alternating
A) pentose SUGAR
and B) PHOSPHATE group

218
Q

DNA: Shape (how do the nitrogenous bases interact?)

A

nitrogenous bases attach to pentose sugar (2-deoxyribose)

Guanine only pairs with Cytosine

Adenine only pairs with Thymine

219
Q

DNA: Polarity

A

one end different from other end

polarity

5 prime end is phosphate end

3 prime end is pentose end

strands are antiparallel to each other

220
Q

Genes vs DNA

A

Genes = segments of DNA molecules

encode for amino acid combos

combo of Amino acids is determined by sequence of NUCLEOTIDES

arrangement of Amino Acids makes specific protein

proteins group together and are passed down from one generation to next

221
Q

RNA

A

DNA produces RNA

TRANSCRIPTION = making RNA

mRNA makes proteins = TRANSLATION

RNA does not stay in nucleus
When RNA is made, it leaves nucleus
goes to cytoplasm

222
Q

what is Translation

A

mRNA makes proteins = TRANSLATION

223
Q

what is transcription

A

TRANSCRIPTION = RNA made from DNA

224
Q

what is mRNA

A

messenger RNA:

forms template for protein translation

DNA -> mRNA -> protein

225
Q

what is tRNA

A

amino acid translation

transfer RNA

–> transfer amino acids

226
Q

rRNA

A

ribosomal RNA

mRNA translation

forms ribosomes (site of translation)

227
Q

RNA: structure

A

ALSO formed by NUCLEOTIDES

1) Ribose (pentose sugar)

2) Nitrogenous base
(A, U, C, G – NOT THYMINE)

3) Phosphate group

228
Q

RNA strand

A

single strand instead of double strand

No thymine

Uracil instead

still alternating phosphate & pentose sugar for backbone

ribose instead of deoxyribose

229
Q

ATP

A

similar structure to DNA/RNA

Not genetic material

used for energy around body

via breakdown of lipids/sugars/proteins

230
Q

ATP: structure

A

1) ADENINE (Purine – same as Adenine in RNA/DNA)

2) Ribose sugar

3) 3 (Tri) phosphates

I.e.
A pentose sugar,
a nitrogenous base (Adenine)
and 3 phosphates

231
Q

why are bonds between phosphates high energy

A

phosphate large

negatively charged oxygens in close proximity

energy is required to hold structure

energy is released when structure is released

232
Q

how is energy derived from ATP

A

bond b/w phosphates is broken – energy released

ATP converted to ADP

Exergonic reaction

VIA enzyme ATPase

233
Q

how does ADP turn into ATP (reverse)

A

when body has enough energy P is added to ADP and becomes ATP

234
Q

5 prime vs 3 prime end

A

5 prime end is phosphate end

3 prime end is pentose end

235
Q

majority of catabolic reactions are done via…

A

hydrolysis

236
Q

at equilibrium, rate of reaction of ____ reactions is the same

A

reversible reactions

Semester 2 (14 decks)

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