A

Question 1

Distinguish between
training, overtraining and
overreaching

Answer 1

Training is performing exercise in an organized
manner on a regular basis with a specific goal in
mind (cross-reference with 6.2).
Overtraining is when an athlete attempts to do
more training than he or she is able to physically
and/or mentally tolerate. Overtraining results
in a number of symptoms that are highly
individualized.
Overreaching is transient overtraining

Question 2

Describe various methods of
training

Answer 2

Limit to:
* flexibility training
* strength and resistance training
* circuit training
* interval training
* plyometrics
* continuous training
* fartlek training/speed play
* cross-training.

Question 3

Discuss possible indicators of
overtraining.

Question 4

Discuss how periodization
should be organized to
optimize performance and
avoid overtraining and
injury

Answer 4

Periodization—transition (post-season),
preparation (pre-season), competition. Knowledge
of macrocycle, mesocycle and microcycle is
required

Question 5

Explain the relationship
between cellular metabolism
and the production of heat
in the human body

Answer 5

Include consideration of the meaning of efficiency
with regard to energy liberation, ATP re-synthesis
and heat production

Question 6

State the normal
physiological range for core
body temperature

Question 7

Outline how the body
thermoregulates in hot and
cold environments

Answer 7

Include the principles of conduction, convection,
radiation and evaporation.
Int: The ability of people who habitually live in
very cold/hot climates to tolerate these harsh
conditions compared with people who live in
temperate climates could be considered

Question 8

Discuss the significance
of humidity and wind in
relation to body heat loss

Question 9

Describe the formation
of sweat and the sweat
response

Answer 9

Consideration of the role of the sympathetic
nervous system and the hypothalamus is not
required

Question 10

Discuss the physiological
responses that occur during
prolonged exercise in the
heat

Answer 10

Limit this to cardiovascular response (crossreference with topic 2.2.8), energy metabolism*
and sweating.
* The reduced muscle blood flow in high
temperatures results in increased glycogen
breakdown in the muscle and higher levels of
muscle and blood lactate in comparison to the
same exercise performed in a cooler environment

Question 11

Discuss the health risks
associated with exercising in
the heat

Answer 11

Heat-related disorders include heat cramps, heat
exhaustion and heat stroke.
Because of their relatively large body surface area
and immature sweat response, infants, children
and young adolescents are more susceptible to
complications associated with exercise performed
in the heat and the cold

Question 12

Outline what steps should
be taken to prevent and to
subsequently treat heatrelated disorders

Question 13

Describe how an athlete
should acclimatize to heat
stress

Answer 13

Performing training sessions in similar
environmental conditions (heat and humidity)
for 5 to 10 days results in almost total heat
acclimatization. Initially, the intensity of training
should be reduced to avoid heat-related problems
in these conditions.
National representative teams/sportspeople
choosing to acclimatize to the conditions of a host
country during a major international sporting
competition could be considered.
Aim 8: The cost associated with the
acclimatization of athletes using environmental
chambers and/or expensive overseas training
facilities (science and technology drives demand)
could be explored. This also raises an ethical
implication that poorer nations are unable to
afford such support mechanisms and so their
athletes are disadvantaged in comparison to
athletes from wealthier nations

Question 14

Discuss the physiological
and metabolic adaptations
that occur with heat
acclimatization

Answer 14

Include increased plasma volume, increased sweat
response and reduced rate of muscle glycogen
utilization

Question 15

Outline the principal means
by which the body maintains
core temperature in cold
environments

Answer 15

Consider shivering, non-shivering thermogenesis
and peripheral vasoconstriction

Question 16

Explain why the body
surface area to body mass
ratio is important for heat
preservation

Answer 16

For example, tall, heavy individuals have a small
body surface area to body mass ratio, which
makes them less susceptible to hypothermia.
Small children tend to have a large body surface
area to body mass ratio compared to adults.
This makes it more difficult for them to maintain
normal body temperature in the cold

Question 17

Outline the importance of
wind chill in relation to body
heat loss

Answer 17

A chill factor created by the increase in the rate of
heat loss via convection and conduction caused
by wind

Question 18

Explain why swimming
in cold water represents
a particular challenge
to the body’s ability to
thermoregulate

Answer 18

Consider the thermal conductivity of water and air.
During cold-water immersion, humans generally
lose body heat and become hypothermic at a
rate proportional to the thermal gradient and
the duration of exposure. During swimming, the
effect of cold water on body heat loss is increased
because of greater convective heat loss. However,
at high swimming speeds, the metabolic rate of
the swimmer may compensate for the increased
heat loss

Question 19

Discuss the physiological
responses to exercise in the
cold

Answer 19

Limit this to muscle function and metabolic
responses.

Question 20

Describe the health risks
of exercising in the cold,
including cold water

Answer 20

Limit to frostbite and hypothermia

Question 21

Discuss the precautions
that should be taken when
exercising in the cold

Answer 21

The principal barrier is clothing, the amount of
insulation offered by which is measured in a unit
called a clo (1 clo = 0.155 m2
K W-1).
Consider the insulating effect of clothing.
Consideration of exercising in water is not
required

Question 22

Define the term ergogenic
aid

Answer 22

An ergogenic aid is any substance or phenomenon
that improves an athlete’s performance

Question 23

Describe, with reference to
an appropriate example, the
placebo effect

Question 24

List five classes of nonnutritional ergogenic aids
that are currently banned by
the International Olympic
Committee (IOC) and the
World Anti-Doping Agency
(WADA

Answer 24

Specific names of banned substances need not be
given. Limit to:
* anabolic steroids
* hormones and related substances
* diuretics and masking agents
* beta blockers
* stimulants

Question 25

Discuss why pharmacological
substances appear on the list
of banned substances.

Answer 25

The discussion should focus on the moral
obligation of athletes to compete fairly and on the
safety issue around the use of these substances

Question 26

Discuss the proposed and
actual benefits that some
athletes would hope to gain
by using anabolic steroids,
erythropoietin (EPO), beta
blockers, caffeine and
diuretics

Answer 26

The combined effects of taking two or more of the
substances need not be considered

Question 27

Outline the possible harmful
effects of long-term use
of anabolic steroids, EPO,
beta blockers, caffeine and
diuretics

Answer 27

Aim 8: Our understanding of the effects,
both ergogenic and harmful, of many banned
substances (for example, anabolic steroids) has
been hindered by the ethical concerns/problems
about studying these agents in otherwise healthy
individuals in randomized controlled trials

Question 28

Define active recovery

Answer 28

Low-intensity exercise to promote recovery either
immediately after, or in the days following, an
intense training session or competition

Question 29

Outline the reasons for
active recovery immediately
after a training session or
competition

Answer 29

Consider:
* raised circulation rate
* enhanced blood lactate removal
* accelerated raising of blood pH.
Link to topic 9: Fatigue

Question 30

Describe the indicators of
recovery

Answer 30

Include:
* physiological indicators (for example,
reduced blood lactate concentration)
* symptomatic indicators (for example,
reduced muscle soreness)
* psychological indicators (for example,
improved preparedness for the next session/
competition)

Question 31

Outline the importance of
planned recovery between
workout sessions as part of a
training programme.

Answer 31

Consider the fitness–fatigue model of training

Question 32

Outline the use of
compression garments for
sports recovery

Answer 32

Compression garments (CGs) provide a means of
applying mechanical pressure at the body surface,
thereby compressing and supporting underlying
tissue. They are relatively low cost, easy to use
and are non-invasive. Although widely used
across many different sports, evidence of any
enhancement of recovery is inconclusive.

Question 33

Define cryotherapy

Answer 33

Body cooling for therapeutic purposes.

Question 34

Describe cryotherapy
procedures used for recovery
in sports

Answer 34

Consider:
* whole body cooling (WBC)
* cold water immersion (CWI)
* contrast water therapy (CWT)
* ice packs.
Int: Hot and cold treatments have been used for
therapeutic purposes in various cultures across
the world for centuries

Question 35

Discuss the use of different
types of cryotherapy for elite
and recreational athletes

Answer 35

Consider:
* analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects for
soft tissue
* perception of enhanced recovery rates and
improved performance
* risks associated with exposure to prolonged
or extreme cold
* costs of the different therapies.
There is pressure to maximize sporting
performance, meaning that athletes often
experiment with extreme interventions even if
their safety and efficacy has not been established

Question 36

State the height ranges
for different categories of
altitude.

Answer 36

Near sea level: 0–500 m
* Low altitude: 500–2,000 m
* Moderate altitude: 2,000–3,000 m
* High altitude: 3,000–5,500 m
* Extreme altitude: above 5,500 m

Question 37

Define hypoxia

Answer 37

This is the condition in which the oxygen supply
to cells is insufficient.

Question 38

Outline the physiological
effects of altitude.

Answer 38

Decreased air density and so decreased oxygen
partial pressure cause hypoxia, resulting in:
* respiratory responses (such as
hyperventilation)
* cardiovascular responses (such as elevated
submaximal heart rate)
* metabolic responses (for example.
production of energy and lactic acid via
glycolysis may be limited)

Question 39

Outline the effects of
altitude on fluid balance

Answer 39

Ambient air at elevated altitude is cool but
humidity is low, enhancing fluid loss and leading
to dehydration.
Fluid loss is exacerbated as a result of physical
activity at altitude.
Altitude-induced diuresis (increased urine
production) also occurs.

Question 40

Outline altitude training

Answer 40

This is training for endurance athletes at altitudes
above 2,000 m for several weeks or months in
order to gain a competitive advantage in lowaltitude competitions.
Training at moderate or high altitude, where
the oxygen partial pressure is low, can trigger
the release of the hormone erythropoietin
(EPO), which stimulates increased red blood cell
production

Question 41

Evaluate the impact
of altitude training for
individual athletes and team
sports players

Answer 41

Consider the following.
* Different approaches, for example:
– live high, train high (LHTH)
– live high, train low (LHTL)
– live low, train high (LLTH).
* Individual altitude training programmes—
not all athletes benefit to the same degree
from altitude training strategies. (Some
athletes are non-responders to altitude.)
Performance in different sports can be affected to
a different extent by altitude training

Question 42

Evaluate the impact
of altitude on sports
performance

Answer 42

Performance in different sports (for example,
endurance events such as cross-country skiing
compared to high-velocity events such as cycling)
may be enhanced or impaired by the following
effects.
* Lower air density means drag is lower at
high altitude.
* Lower partial pressure of oxygen (pO2)
causes reduced maximum aerobic capacity.
* Projectile motion (for example, ball sports,
throwing, shooting and ski jumping) is also
altered by reduced air density

Question 43

Explain the adaptations
resulting from altitude
hypoxia

Answer 43

Consider:
* blood adaptations (for example, increased
number of red blood cells)
* muscle adaptations (for example, reduced
lean body mass and increased capillary
density in the muscles)
* cardiorespiratory adaptations (for example,
increase in pulmonary ventilation both at
rest and during exercise).

Question 44

Distinguish between the
symptoms of acute mountain
sickness (AMS), high-altitude
pulmonary edema (HAPE)
and high-altitude cerebral
edema (HACE)

Answer 44

AMS—dizziness, headache, nausea or vomiting,
shortness of breath, elevated heart rate.
HAPE—accumulation of fluid in the lungs results
in shortness of breath, elevated heart rate as well
as coughing, wheezing while breathing and a
bluish appearance to the skin.
HACE—accumulation of fluid in the brain results in
confusion, fever, photophobia, severe headaches,
cessation of physical activities and eventually loss
of consciousness.

Question 45

Describe how to prevent
high-altitude illness for
athletes

Answer 45

• Screen for pre-existing medical conditions.
• Promote hydration.
• Ascend gradually.
• Introduce participation in exercise gradually.
• Use medication to prevent AMS, for
  example, acetazolamide (a respiratory
  stimulant)