9 - The Theories of Learning

Question 1

Define Operant Conditioning?

Answer 1

The use of reinforcement to ensure that correct responses are repeated.

Question 2

Explain Operant Conditioning?

Answer 2

Operant conditioning is the use of reinforcement to link correct responses to a stimulus. It is therefore known as the behaviourist theory since it connects the stimulus to the response. Operant conditioning is based on the pioneering work of the psychologist Skinner (1948) who observed rats in a cage called the ‘skinner box’. The cage was fitted with a mechanism that delivers food to the rats every time it was touched. At first, the rats hit the mechanism by accident but quickly learned to hit the mechanism to gain their reward.

Question 3

Operant conditioning is characterised by 3 features, what are they?

Answer 3

• It is based on trial and error
• Manipulates the environment (the coach might)
• Shapes behaviour (using reinforcement)

Question 4

Define Positive Reinforcement?

Answer 4

Positive reinforcement is when a pleasant stimulus is given to increase the likelihood of a correct response occurring again in the future.

A coach who offers praise to a swimmer for correct leg action or the reward of a certificate for achieving 25 metres in the pool as a young swimmer will offer motivation to continue repeating such success.

Question 5

Define Negative Reinforcement with an example?

Answer 5

Negative reinforcement promotes correct actions occurring to a stimulus by taking away an unpleasant stimulus when the performer does it right. (Taking away a unpleasant stimulus after the correct response).

Eg. If the coach is repeatedly telling the performer that they are performing the skill incorrectly and then suddenly becomes quiet, the learner knows that they have begun to perform the skill correctly.

Question 6

Define punishment (in terms of operant conditioning)?

Answer 6

Punishment is when a coach gives an unpleasant stimulus to prevent incorrect actions from happening again.

E.g a red card in football or suicide runs in basketball.

Question 7

Define the Behaviourist Theory?

Answer 7

This attempts to explain how actions can be linked to stimuli.

Question 8

Explain the stimulus-response bond?

Answer 8

Operant conditioning works by strengthening the link between the stimulus and the response. This is known as the S-R bond.

A simple example would come from a game of badminton, if the shuttlecock is returned high in the air and mid-court, the best response would be to do a smash shot.

By linking this appropriate response to the stimulus, then actions can be learned.

Question 9

Define Satisfier?

Answer 9

An action that promotes a pleasant feeling so that responses are repeated.

Question 10

Define Annoyer?

Answer 10

An action that creates unease to promote the avoidance of incorrect responses.

Question 11

Define Observational Learning (Bandura)?

Answer 11

This theory was researched by Albert Bandura in 1977. It suggests that both acceptable and unacceptable behaviour can be learned by watching and then copying other people.

Young football players may often be seen copying the goal celebrations of their professional role models.

Question 12

What are the 4 observational learning processes and explain them?

Answer 12

Attention - making the demonstration attractive to the performer.
Retention - remembering the demonstration and being able to recall it.
Motor Production - Having the mental and physical ability to do the task.
Motivation - Having the drive to do the task.

Question 13

Explain the Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)?

Answer 13

Vygotsky looked at the development of young children and decided that interaction with others plays a vital role in learning. Interaction with others can produce learning by social development. In sport, skills can be learned from others such as coaches, teachers - these influential others are known as MKOs (More Knowledgeable Others).

During development, the skills are learned from the coach by a process that Vygotsky called inter-psychological learning (when the learner uses MKO to get advice, feedback and tactical knowledge).

Once external advice has been absorbed, learning can then take place within the learner who will use cognitive aspects of skill acquisition to internally analyse, think about and construct actions based on what they have learned externally. This learning from within takes place after the intro-psychological stage and is called intra-psychological learning.

Question 14

Define Social Development?

Answer 14

Learning by association with others.

Question 15

Define Inter-Psychological Learning?

Answer 15

Learning from others externally.

Question 16

Define Intra-Psychological Learning?

Answer 16

Learning from within after gaining external knowledge from others.

Question 17

Explain Constructivism (Vygotsky)?

Answer 17

To construct means to build. Constructivism is building up learning in stages, based on the current level of performance.

Vygotsky suggested that the learner will use 3 levels of performance to assess what they need to do to improve. He suggested that the learner uses zone of proximal development - an assessment of what they need to do next to learn the skill.

Question 18

Define the zone of proximal development?

Answer 18

The next stage of learning based on the performers needs, expectations and current level of performance.

Question 19

What are the 3 stages of proximal development?

Answer 19

What can I do alone?
What can I do with help?
What can I not do yet?

Question 20

Explain Insight Learning (Gestaltist theories)?

Answer 20

This theory of insight learning was suggested by a group of German psychologists called the ‘Gestalts’, a term that means concentrating on the whole rather than the parts.

This theory, as the term ‘insight’ suggests, says the performer uses existing knowledge to form an idea of how to deal with problematic sporting situations because they might have an idea from their general sporting knowledge which they can put into practice.

E.g a 3000m athletics race, the athlete may be aware of some of the runners who have a fast finish in the final 400m. The athlete works out that it would be a good tactic to set off at a fast pace and maintain this pace throughout the race. The idea is the fast finish is neglected by the effort of keeping up with the same pace throughout.

The features of the insight theory is that it focuses on the whole task therefore it’s good for realistic situations. It encourages the performer to think for themselves and develops the cognitive process.

Question 21

Define Insight Learning?

Answer 21

Using experience and understanding to solve problems relating to the whole skill.