9. Development of Self and Peer Relationships Flashcards
1
Q
The Self- Concept
A
- An organized set of beliefs about oneself, including personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, and roles
- Rudimentary self-concept emerges around 18 months as evidenced by children passing rouge test
–> Children also start using “me” pronoun and calling themselves by name around this age
2
Q
Gender and the Self-Concept
A
- Gender is usually first characteristic present in children’s self-concept and is central to their sense of self
- 2.5 – 3 years old: form basic gender identity
–> Start identifying as boy or girl and can label others as boys or girls
3
Q
Gender Socialization
A
- Process through which children learn about the social expectations, attitudes, and behaviours associated with girls and boys by internalizing the messages received about gender from caregivers and wider society
- Parents of day-old infants describe newborn girls as softer, less strong, more delicate, and quieter than newborn boy
4
Q
Baby X Studies
A
- Studies in which researchers label the sameinfant as a “boy” or a “girl” and then observe how adults interact with the infant
- Infants labelled as “boys” rated as bigger, stronger, louder and more likely to be encouraged to be active
- Infants labelled as “girls” received more talk and nurturance
- Suggests that caregivers’ perceptions of differences between male and female babies are due to their own associations with gender, rather than actual gender differences
5
Q
More Subtle Gender Socialization
A
- Study: How does gender shape parents’ expectations about motor skills?
- Method:
–> Parents of 11-month-olds estimated the steepest slope their infants could safely crawl down without falling by setting the angle on a mechanical sloping walkway
–> Infants then tested on their actual crawling skills down slopes of different angles - Parents of girls tended to underestimate their infant’s crawling ability but parents of boys more accurately estimated their ability
- When tested on their actual skills, boys and girls did not differ on the slopes they could safely crawl down
- Suggests that gender differences in motor skills only exist in parent’s perception
6
Q
More Subtle Gender Socialization Contd.
A
- Toy purchases
–> Boys have more toy trucks and girls have 5x more pink toys by 12-months-old - Play
–> Parents present boys with more physical challenges than girls
–> More likely to offer girls more help - Language differences
–> Parents are more likely to use emotion words with girls than boys in early childhood
–> Emotion understanding thus develops earlier in girls - Division of household chores
–> Homes in which parents take on more traditional gender roles in completing chores are communicating gender roles - Media exposure
–> More TV viewing by preschoolers associated with them more likely saying that people see “boys as better than girls”
7
Q
Self-Socialization
A
- Once a child identifies with a gender, they actively seek out gender-related information and conform their behaviour to this info
–> Highlights children’s own role in their gender development - 3-5 year olds: rigid, gender-stereotyped behaviours
–> Preference for toys and clothes that are consistent with gender identity
–> Preference for same-gender playmates
–> Cross-cultural *Due to lack of gender constancy
*Understanding that gender remains the same regardless of superficial changes to appearance or behaviour - 6 years old: Rigid, gendered behaviour relaxes because gender constancy is achieved
–> Accept more non-gendered appearance and toy preferences in themselves and others - BUT as children get older, they acquire more complex ideas and expectations about gender that include traits, roles, abilities, etc.
–> Incorporate these into their self-concepts and adjust their behaviour accordingly
–> E.g., girls are quiet and well-behaved; boys are active and good at sports
8
Q
Implications of Gender Identity
A
- Gender is a central characteristic that organizes children’s self-concepts
- Adherence to gender stereotypes can unnecessarily limit children’s development in educational aspirations, social development, and emotional expression
- Extent to which a child shows gender-consistent behaviour is associated with level of peer acceptance
–> Even though children increase their gender flexibility with age, they tend to reject peers who do not behave in typically gendered ways
–> Greater engagement with peers of same gender is powerful way that gender stereotypes and identities are reinforced
9
Q
Towards Gender Neutrality
A
- When parents have more egalitarian views and behaviours, children tend to have less traditional gender-role attitudes
- Gender neutral parenting: conscious parenting practice to encourage children to explore and express themselves in a way that is not defined by traditional gender roles
–> Common in WEIRD countries
–> E.g., not enforcing gender-specific colours, avoiding gender-specific language, encouraging all activities
10
Q
Gender Development in Cis vs. Transgender Children
A
- Sex: assigned at birth usually based on external genitalia
- Cisgender children: Children who identify with their assigned sex
- Transgender children: Children who don’t identity with their assigned sex
–> Tend to show strong identification and preferences aligned with current gender in a way that is very similar to cisgender children
–> Research suggest that transgender identity is not a result of parent socialization and instead seems to be internally driven
11
Q
Self-Concept is a Social Construction
A
- Children’s self-concept develops primarily by internalizing others’ perceptions of them
–> Direct: others describe a child a certain way and the child incorporates that description into their self-concept
*E.g., being told they’re good at math
–> Indirect: how children are treated
*E.g. caregiving experiences shape internal working models
12
Q
Self-Concept in Early Childhood
A
- 3-6 years old*Gender is central to self-concept
- Concrete, observable characteristics that tend to focus on physical attributes and physical activities
- Unrealistically positive and confident
–> Result of cognitive limitations
13
Q
Self-Concept in Middle Childhood
A
- 7-12 years old
- Describe self using personality traits and inner qualities
–> E.g. “I’m shy” - Self-concept is more balanced and accurate
–> Includes weakness but still positive overall - Changes in self-concept from early childhood due to:
–> Increased cognitive ability to think about multiple qualities simultaneously
–> Greater engagement in social comparison and more strongly influenced by the opinions of others
14
Q
Self-Concept in Adolescence
A
- 13-18 years old
- Can think of themselves in increasingly abstract ways
–> “I’m extroverted, because I’m talkative, friendly, and energetic.” - But also…
–> More intense concerns about social acceptance which heavily influence self-concept
–> Egocentrism:
*Especially in early-mid adolescence
*Assume that their thoughts and feelings are more unique than they really are
*“You don’t understand me!”
*Imaginary audience: belief that everyone is very focused on their appearance and behaviour
–> Aware of differences in behaviour in different social settings leading to confusion and many questions about identity
15
Q
Forming an Identity
A
- Forming an identity is the primary psychosocial task of adolescence/ early adulthood
- Identity is formed through a process of:
–> Exploration: questioning of parental and societal values and experimenting with various facets of identity
*Including appearance, hobbies, traits, friends, courses, etc.
*Viewed as important and healthy for identity development
–> Commitment: consolidation and acceptance of who one is as indicated by the choices one makes
16
Q
Marcia’s Identity Statuses
A
- Typical trajectory: Diffusion –> Moratorium/Foreclosure –> Achievement
17
Q
Identity Diffusion
A
- Lack of exploration of options and no commitments made
–> Due to lack of interest in own identity or indecision
–> Common in children
–> If persists into late adolescence/adulthood, associated with feeling disconnected, being easily influenced by others, and little sense of purpose
18
Q
Moratorium
A
- Active exploration of various roles but no commitments yet
–> Brought about by awareness of multiple selves and exposure to different identity options
–> Feelings of confusion and anxiety are normal at this status
–> Important phase for identity achievement
19
Q
Foreclosure
A
- Commitment to a life path without having explored alternatives
–> Due to:
*Parents making decisions for teen without their input
*Teen strongly identifies with a parent and wishes to follow in their footsteps
–> More likely in teens who are obedient, have a low level of tolerance for uncertainty, and have authoritarian parents
–> Potential problem is choosing an identity that is not a good fit
*Can lead to lower life satisfaction and a struggle to maintain the commitment - Most teens are in moratorium or foreclosure
20
Q
Identity Achievement
A
- Completed phase of exploration and commitment to an internally driven identity
–> Associated with most positive mental health and social outcomes
–> Usually achieved in early adulthood
–> Biggest gains in identity are in post-secondary schooling due to greater exposure to different lifestyles, beliefs, and career options
21
Q
Criticisms of Marcia’s Identity Status Theory
A
- Research into identity statuses conducted in WEIRD samples
–> Typical progression and outcomes may differ in non-WEIRD societies - Identity development is a continuous process, not limited to adolescence
–> Life events in adulthood can restart the process
–> E.g., losing a job
22
Q
What is play?
A
- Voluntary activities done for inherent enjoyment
- Play looks different depending on a child’s age
23
Q
Non-Social Play
A
- Play that doesn’t involve the participation of peers
1. Unoccupied play: child briefly watches things around them, but nothing holds their attention for long- Birth –3 months
2. Solitary play: child is focused on their own activity and is uninterested in playing with others - 3 months –2 years old
3. Onlooker play:child watches other children’s play - May ask questions, but won’t join in
- Begins around 2 years old
- Birth –3 months
24
Q
Social Play
A
- Play that involves participation of peers
- Parallel play: children play next to each other, possibly doing the same activity, but do not interact much
–> Begins between in 2-3 years olds - Associative play: children play together, engaging sometimes, but have different goals
–> Begins between 3-4 years olds - Cooperative play: children play together and are working towards a common goal
–> Begins 4+ years old - Progression onto more advanced forms of play doesn’t mean that children no longer engage in less advanced form of play
25
Q
Play is Critical for Learning
A
- Social-emotional development
–> Learn to cooperate
–> Develop theory of mind - Cognitive development
–> Practice problem-solving
–> Learning about the world through trial and error
–> Develop language skills - Motor development
–> Unoccupied play fosters motor skills
26
Q
Importance of Play
A
UN recognizes a child’s right “to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child”
27
Q
Friend
A
A person that’s not a relative with whom an individual has an intimate, reciprocated, and positive relationship
28
Q
Children’s Choice of Friends
A
- Most important factors in children’s friendships:
1. Similarity- Age
- Acceptance by peers
- Personality (e.g. cooperativeness, shyness)
- Level of negative emotions
- Academic motivation
2. Proximity - More likely to become friends with kids who are physically near by
- Especially important for younger kids
29
Q
Gender and Choice of Friends
A
- More likely to be friends with kids of the same gender
–> This preference emerges around 3 years of age
–> Peaks around age 13 - Age 13: Time with different gender friends increases, especially for girls
30
Q
Ethnicity and Friendship
A
- To a lesser extent, children tend to be friends with peers of their own racial/ethnic group
- Children who enjoy meeting kids from different ethnicities tend to be more popular, have more friends, and seem to be more socially skilled in general
–> Associated with more positive attitudes towards other ethnic groups in the future
31
Q
Developmental Trajectory of Friendships
A
- 1-2 years old:
–> Show preference of some children over others
*Touch them more often
*Smile more at them - 2-3 years old:
–> Developing more complex social behaviours
*E.g., imitating peers’ behaviours, cooperative problem solving, turn taking
*Emergence of parallel play - 3-5 years old: Kids have a concept of friendship
–> Most kids have at least one friend
–> Friendship defined as playing together
*Best friend = peer a child plays with most
–> But friends also have more conflict than non-friends
*More likely to cooperate to resolve conflict than non-friends
–> Emergence of preference for same gender peers (3-4 years of age) - 6-8 years old: Define friendship on basis of shared activities with peers
–> E.g. “He’s my friend because we both like to play soccer.” - 9 years old-12 years old: Definition of friendship expands to include trust, care, and help
- Adolescence: Friendship primarily defined by self-disclosure and intimacy
–> Friendship takes on central importance
–> Age 13: start having more friends of different genders
32
Q
Girls’ vs. Boys’ Friendships
A
- As children get older, gender differences emerge in what they want out of friendship
- Girls (vs. boys):
–> Desire more closeness and dependency in friendships
–> But comes with more worrying and stress about friendships - Girls and boys show similar levels of conflict and stability in friendships
33
Q
Sociometric Status
A
- Sociometric status: degree to which children are liked vs. disliked by peers
–> Measured by having children anonymously nominate peers in their class that they like (positive nominations) and peers in their class that they dislike (negative nominations) - Each child is classified into one of 5 status groups:
–> Popular
–> Rejected
–> Average
–> Neglected
–> Controversial
34
Q
Popular Kids
A
- 11% of kids
- Liked by many peers and disliked by few
- Tend to be:
–> Socially skilled
–> Good emotion-regulation skills
–> Assertive, but not aggressive
–> Tend to have factors that give them high status
*Attractive, athletic, have popular friends
35
Q
Rejected Kids
A
- 13% of kids
- Liked by few peers and disliked by many
- Tend to have fewer positive social skills compared to peers
36
Q
Rejected-Aggressive
A
- 40-50% of rejected kids
- Tend to show high levels of hostility, threatening behaviour, physical aggression, and delinquency
- Vicious cycle: Aggressive <2–> Rejected
37
Q
Rejected-Withdrawn
A
- 10-25% of rejected kids
- Tend to be socially withdrawn, timid, and socially anxious
- Frequently victimized and feel lonely, isolated, depressed
Vicious cycle: Withdrawn <–> Rejected
38
Q
Controversial Kids
A
- 7% of kids*Liked by many but also disliked by many
- Characteristics of rejected-aggressive and popular kids
–> Aggressive, disruptive, and prone to anger
–> Compensate for this with many positive social skills like being cooperative, sociable, and funny
39
Q
Neglected Kids
A
- 9% of kids
- Don’t receive many nominations
–> Not liked or dislike
–> Neutral/ not noticed - Less social and less disruptive than average children
- But not at risk for negative outcomes
–> Simply prefer solitary activities
–> Can be socially skilled in more structured activities
40
Q
Average Kids
A
- 60% of kids
- Moderate number of likes and dislikes
- More social than rejected and neglected kids, but not as social as popular and controversial kids
41
Q
Stability of Sociometric Status
A
- Sociometric status more likely to change from year to year
- Average and rejected status most stable
–> Popular status tends to be stable within a given school year
42
Q
Importance of Friendship
A
- Provides social validation and support
–> Especially important during transitions
–> Kids tend to rely more on friends than parents starting in adolescence
–> Chronic friendlessness is associated with increased loneliness and depression
–> Friendship buffers against negative experiences
43
Q
Friends Buffer Against Negative Experiences
A
- Study: 10-11 year olds reported on their negative experiences over the course of 4 days
–> After each experience, indicated:
*Self-worth: how they felt about themselves
*Whether best friend was present or not
–> Measured salivary cortisol as an indicator of stress reaction - If best friend was not present, more negative experiences associated with increased cortisol and lower self-worth
- But not if best friend was present
44
Q
Importance of Friendship
A
- Provides social validation and support
–> Especially important during transitions
–> Friendship is associated with less loneliness and depression
–> Kids tend to rely more on friends than parents around age 16
–> Friendship buffers against negative experiences - Fosters development of positive social skills
–> Builds cooperation, theory of mind, conflict resolution skills
–> Childhood friendships are “practice” for adult relationships
45
Q
Longitudinal Benefits of Childhood
A
- Study: Friendship assessed at age 10 and then follow-up at age 22
–> At age 10, kids who had a best friend (vs. those that didn’t) were seen as:
*Less aggressive
*More popular/ well-liked
–> At age 22, those that had a best friend at age 10:
*Were more successful in university
*Had better family and social lives
*Had high self-esteem and less anxiety & depression - Shows that having a close friendship in childhood has both short-term and long-term benefits for social and psychological well-being
46
Q
Implications of Being Rejected
A
- Rejected, especially aggressive-rejected, status in childhood is associated with a variety of negative outcomes :
–> More aggression
–> Delinquency in teens
–> Substance abuse
–> Continued unhealthy relationships into adolescence and adulthood
–> Low self-esteem
–> Less education and limited work success
–> Crime in adulthood
47
Q
Falling in With the Wrong Crowd
A
- Deviancy training: negative peer pressure wherein peers model and reinforce aggression and deviance by making these behaviours seem acceptable
–> Kids that have aggressive/ delinquent friends are more likely to also become more aggressive and delinquent themselves
–> Can begin as early as age 5
–> Similar effect with alcohol and drug use
48
Q
Choosing the Wrong Crowd
A
- But also selection effect:
–> Children choose peers that are similar to them
–> Implies that kids choose and contribute to “the wrong crowd” - Vicious cycle: Aggressive Kids <–> Aggressive Friends
49
Q
Secure Attachment with Parents
A
- Secure attachment promotes social competence with peers
–> Secure internal working model means that kids expect interactions with peers to be rewarding thus fostering more social engagement
50
Q
Parental Monitoring
A
- Monitoring: parents keeping track of their children’s activities, friends, and whereabouts
- Looks different depending on the age of the child
–> Young children -> parents actively decide on activities
–> Adolescence -> parents have general knowledge of friends, activities, and whereabouts but exert less control over activities - Important at all ages, especially during adolescence
–> Young children with parents who organize more extracurricular activities tend to be more socially skilled
–> Teens’ whose parents have high knowledge of their social lives are less likely to engage in substance abuse
51
Q
Parental Emotional Coaching
A
- Parents teach kids how to effectively manage emotions to interact with peers and handle conflict
- Study: Parental coaching buffers the level of stress associated with problems in friendships for kids 7-9 years old
–> Suggests that relationships with parents may have stronger link to mental health than peer relationships
52
Q
School Interventions
A
- School interventions aim to improve children’s peer relationships by enhancing their emotional development
- Example: Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS)
–> Aim to change how rejected children interact with peers
53
Q
PATHS
A
- Kids ages 4-11
- Learn:
–> to identify emotional expressions
–> think about the causes and consequences of different ways of expressing emotions
–> strategies for self-regulation
54
Q
PATHS Outcomes
A
- Children that participate in PATHS (vs. control) show:
–> Improved emotion understanding and regulation
–> Increased social problem-solving
–> Decreased externalizing behaviour (aggression, acting out)
–> Decreased depression
55
Q
Social Media Use
A
- 4.8 hours: Average number of hours a day a US teen uses social media
56
Q
Benefits of Social Media Use
A
- Staying connected with what’s going on in friends’ lives
- Space for self-expression
- Finding similar peers
–> Enables social support and a sense of belonging
–> Online social supports seems to be especially important for marginalized youth
57
Q
Potential Harms of Social Media Use
A
- Correlational studies show that higher social media use by adolescents is associated with:
–> Higher anxiety
–> Higher loneliness
–> Higher depression
–> Lower self-esteem
–> Poor body-image
–> Poor sleep
–> Attention difficulties - Negative association more pronounced for girls (vs. boys) and more pronounced for younger teens (12-14 years old)
- Important limitation = Correlation does not equal causation
58
Q
Causal Evidence for Social Media Harms
A
- Method: Longitudinal study over 2 years of adolescents 12-15 years old
–> Examined effect of social media use on mental health, adjusted for pre-existing mental health problems - Results: Adolescents who spend more than 3 hours per day on social media faced 2x the risk of mental health problems, especially internalizing problems
59
Q
Why is high social media use problematic?
A
- Exposure to harmful content
–> Unrealistic beauty standards
*Social media induced body comparison is strongly associated with body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in teen girls
*Internal research concluded that Instagram is engineered towards greater social comparisons than other apps, like TikTok and Snapchat
–> Maladaptive behaviour
*E.g. exposure to self-harm or restrictive eating content normalizes it and promotes similar behaviours in users
–> Hate-based content - Disruptions to healthy behaviours
–> E.g. sleep and physical exercise
–> 1/3 of girls 11-15 years old feel “addicted” to social media
60
Q
Social Media and the Teen Brain
A
- Adolescents are likely more prone high social media use due to developing limbic system
–> Heightened reward processing in limbic system in adolescents (vs. kids or adults) likely leads to heightened sensitive to the positive and negative effects of social media
61
Q
Frequent Social Media Changes and the Teen Brain
A
- Method: Longitudinal study over 3 years in 12-13 year old
–> Reported on social media use
–> Completed a social reward task in an fMRI scanner each year - Results: Teens who engaged in more frequent social media use showed increased amygdala activation over time in response to social rewards
–> Compared to typical decrease in sensitivity - Suggests that frequent social media use may be associated with brain changes to social rewards and punishments
62
Q
APA Recommendations
A
- Adult should monitor kids’ social media use, especially in early adolescence (10-14 years old)
–> Age-appropriate social media limits
–> Discussions with kids and coaching around social media use - Adults should model a healthy relationship with social media
- Kids should receive social media literacy training
