9. Development of Self and Peer Relationships Flashcards
1
Q
The Self- Concept
A
- An organized set of beliefs about oneself, including personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, and roles
- Rudimentary self-concept emerges around 18 months as evidenced by children passing rouge test
–> Children also start using “me” pronoun and calling themselves by name around this age
2
Q
Gender and the Self-Concept
A
- Gender is usually first characteristic present in children’s self-concept and is central to their sense of self
- 2.5 – 3 years old: form basic gender identity
–> Start identifying as boy or girl and can label others as boys or girls
3
Q
Gender Socialization
A
- Process through which children learn about the social expectations, attitudes, and behaviours associated with girls and boys by internalizing the messages received about gender from caregivers and wider society
- Parents of day-old infants describe newborn girls as softer, less strong, more delicate, and quieter than newborn boy
4
Q
Baby X Studies
A
- Studies in which researchers label the sameinfant as a “boy” or a “girl” and then observe how adults interact with the infant
- Infants labelled as “boys” rated as bigger, stronger, louder and more likely to be encouraged to be active
- Infants labelled as “girls” received more talk and nurturance
- Suggests that caregivers’ perceptions of differences between male and female babies are due to their own associations with gender, rather than actual gender differences
5
Q
More Subtle Gender Socialization
A
- Study: How does gender shape parents’ expectations about motor skills?
- Method:
–> Parents of 11-month-olds estimated the steepest slope their infants could safely crawl down without falling by setting the angle on a mechanical sloping walkway
–> Infants then tested on their actual crawling skills down slopes of different angles - Parents of girls tended to underestimate their infant’s crawling ability but parents of boys more accurately estimated their ability
- When tested on their actual skills, boys and girls did not differ on the slopes they could safely crawl down
- Suggests that gender differences in motor skills only exist in parent’s perception
6
Q
More Subtle Gender Socialization Contd.
A
- Toy purchases
–> Boys have more toy trucks and girls have 5x more pink toys by 12-months-old - Play
–> Parents present boys with more physical challenges than girls
–> More likely to offer girls more help - Language differences
–> Parents are more likely to use emotion words with girls than boys in early childhood
–> Emotion understanding thus develops earlier in girls - Division of household chores
–> Homes in which parents take on more traditional gender roles in completing chores are communicating gender roles - Media exposure
–> More TV viewing by preschoolers associated with them more likely saying that people see “boys as better than girls”
7
Q
Self-Socialization
A
- Once a child identifies with a gender, they actively seek out gender-related information and conform their behaviour to this info
–> Highlights children’s own role in their gender development - 3-5 year olds: rigid, gender-stereotyped behaviours
–> Preference for toys and clothes that are consistent with gender identity
–> Preference for same-gender playmates
–> Cross-cultural *Due to lack of gender constancy
*Understanding that gender remains the same regardless of superficial changes to appearance or behaviour - 6 years old: Rigid, gendered behaviour relaxes because gender constancy is achieved
–> Accept more non-gendered appearance and toy preferences in themselves and others - BUT as children get older, they acquire more complex ideas and expectations about gender that include traits, roles, abilities, etc.
–> Incorporate these into their self-concepts and adjust their behaviour accordingly
–> E.g., girls are quiet and well-behaved; boys are active and good at sports
8
Q
Implications of Gender Identity
A
- Gender is a central characteristic that organizes children’s self-concepts
- Adherence to gender stereotypes can unnecessarily limit children’s development in educational aspirations, social development, and emotional expression
- Extent to which a child shows gender-consistent behaviour is associated with level of peer acceptance
–> Even though children increase their gender flexibility with age, they tend to reject peers who do not behave in typically gendered ways
–> Greater engagement with peers of same gender is powerful way that gender stereotypes and identities are reinforced
9
Q
Towards Gender Neutrality
A
- When parents have more egalitarian views and behaviours, children tend to have less traditional gender-role attitudes
- Gender neutral parenting: conscious parenting practice to encourage children to explore and express themselves in a way that is not defined by traditional gender roles
–> Common in WEIRD countries
–> E.g., not enforcing gender-specific colours, avoiding gender-specific language, encouraging all activities
10
Q
Gender Development in Cis vs. Transgender Children
A
- Sex: assigned at birth usually based on external genitalia
- Cisgender children: Children who identify with their assigned sex
- Transgender children: Children who don’t identity with their assigned sex
–> Tend to show strong identification and preferences aligned with current gender in a way that is very similar to cisgender children
–> Research suggest that transgender identity is not a result of parent socialization and instead seems to be internally driven
11
Q
Self-Concept is a Social Construction
A
- Children’s self-concept develops primarily by internalizing others’ perceptions of them
–> Direct: others describe a child a certain way and the child incorporates that description into their self-concept
*E.g., being told they’re good at math
–> Indirect: how children are treated
*E.g. caregiving experiences shape internal working models
12
Q
Self-Concept in Early Childhood
A
- 3-6 years old*Gender is central to self-concept
- Concrete, observable characteristics that tend to focus on physical attributes and physical activities
- Unrealistically positive and confident
–> Result of cognitive limitations
13
Q
Self-Concept in Middle Childhood
A
- 7-12 years old
- Describe self using personality traits and inner qualities
–> E.g. “I’m shy” - Self-concept is more balanced and accurate
–> Includes weakness but still positive overall - Changes in self-concept from early childhood due to:
–> Increased cognitive ability to think about multiple qualities simultaneously
–> Greater engagement in social comparison and more strongly influenced by the opinions of others
14
Q
Self-Concept in Adolescence
A
- 13-18 years old
- Can think of themselves in increasingly abstract ways
–> “I’m extroverted, because I’m talkative, friendly, and energetic.” - But also…
–> More intense concerns about social acceptance which heavily influence self-concept
–> Egocentrism:
*Especially in early-mid adolescence
*Assume that their thoughts and feelings are more unique than they really are
*“You don’t understand me!”
*Imaginary audience: belief that everyone is very focused on their appearance and behaviour
–> Aware of differences in behaviour in different social settings leading to confusion and many questions about identity
15
Q
Forming an Identity
A
- Forming an identity is the primary psychosocial task of adolescence/ early adulthood
- Identity is formed through a process of:
–> Exploration: questioning of parental and societal values and experimenting with various facets of identity
*Including appearance, hobbies, traits, friends, courses, etc.
*Viewed as important and healthy for identity development
–> Commitment: consolidation and acceptance of who one is as indicated by the choices one makes
16
Q
Marcia’s Identity Statuses
A
- Typical trajectory: Diffusion –> Moratorium/Foreclosure –> Achievement
17
Q
Identity Diffusion
A
- Lack of exploration of options and no commitments made
–> Due to lack of interest in own identity or indecision
–> Common in children
–> If persists into late adolescence/adulthood, associated with feeling disconnected, being easily influenced by others, and little sense of purpose
18
Q
Moratorium
A
- Active exploration of various roles but no commitments yet
–> Brought about by awareness of multiple selves and exposure to different identity options
–> Feelings of confusion and anxiety are normal at this status
–> Important phase for identity achievement
19
Q
Foreclosure
A
- Commitment to a life path without having explored alternatives
–> Due to:
*Parents making decisions for teen without their input
*Teen strongly identifies with a parent and wishes to follow in their footsteps
–> More likely in teens who are obedient, have a low level of tolerance for uncertainty, and have authoritarian parents
–> Potential problem is choosing an identity that is not a good fit
*Can lead to lower life satisfaction and a struggle to maintain the commitment - Most teens are in moratorium or foreclosure
20
Q
Identity Achievement
A
- Completed phase of exploration and commitment to an internally driven identity
–> Associated with most positive mental health and social outcomes
–> Usually achieved in early adulthood
–> Biggest gains in identity are in post-secondary schooling due to greater exposure to different lifestyles, beliefs, and career options
21
Q
Criticisms of Marcia’s Identity Status Theory
A
- Research into identity statuses conducted in WEIRD samples
–> Typical progression and outcomes may differ in non-WEIRD societies - Identity development is a continuous process, not limited to adolescence
–> Life events in adulthood can restart the process
–> E.g., losing a job
22
Q
What is play?
A
- Voluntary activities done for inherent enjoyment
- Play looks different depending on a child’s age
23
Q
Non-Social Play
A
- Play that doesn’t involve the participation of peers
1. Unoccupied play: child briefly watches things around them, but nothing holds their attention for long- Birth –3 months
2. Solitary play: child is focused on their own activity and is uninterested in playing with others - 3 months –2 years old
3. Onlooker play:child watches other children’s play - May ask questions, but won’t join in
- Begins around 2 years old
- Birth –3 months
24
Q
Social Play
A
- Play that involves participation of peers
- Parallel play: children play next to each other, possibly doing the same activity, but do not interact much
–> Begins between in 2-3 years olds - Associative play: children play together, engaging sometimes, but have different goals
–> Begins between 3-4 years olds - Cooperative play: children play together and are working towards a common goal
–> Begins 4+ years old - Progression onto more advanced forms of play doesn’t mean that children no longer engage in less advanced form of play
