8 THE CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT Flashcards
What was the state of diabetes treatment before insulin was discovered?
Diabetes was a horrible disease with almost no effective treatment, leading to a miserable death for most patients
Youngsters with diabetes often died within a year of diagnosis, and the only way to reduce sugar levels was to keep them on the edge of starvation.
Who discovered insulin?
Frederick Banting
Banting was a general practitioner with no prior experience in medical research.
What are the two main functions of the pancreas?
- Producing enzymes for digestion
- Producing insulin in the islets of Langerhans
What is insulin?
A small protein vital for maintaining blood sugar balance
Insulin is produced by the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.
What was Banting’s hypothesis regarding the pancreatic duct?
Tying off the pancreatic duct would stop digestive juices from being produced, allowing insulin to be separated
This hypothesis was based on no evidence.
Who assisted Banting in his experiments?
Charles Herbert Best
What unexpected result did Banting and Best achieve in their experiments?
They produced pure insulin despite conducting their experiments incorrectly
Their approach was described as “wrongly conceived, wrongly conducted, and wrongly interpreted.”
What is the difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes?
Type 1: Body stops producing insulin
Type 2: Insulin is less effective due to decreased production or insulin resistance
What is insulin resistance?
A condition where the body’s cells do not respond effectively to insulin
This is often seen in type 2 diabetes.
What are the primary causes of type 2 diabetes?
- Unhealthy lifestyle
- Genetic factors
What has been the trend in diabetes rates from 1980 to 2014?
The number of adults with diabetes increased from just over 100 million to over 400 million
What is a limitation of insulin therapy?
Insulin cannot be taken orally as it is broken down in the gut
It must be injected, which is tedious and less precise than natural insulin regulation.
What are hormones?
Substances produced in one part of the body that cause actions elsewhere
How many hormones were known by 1958?
About twenty hormones
What are endocrine glands?
Glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream
What is the role of the pituitary gland?
Controls various bodily functions by producing hormones
It is often referred to as the master gland.
Who was Robert Wadlow?
The tallest human who ever lived, due to a pituitary condition causing overproduction of growth hormone
What experiment made Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard famous?
He injected himself with extracts from animal testes, claiming rejuvenation effects
This was based on a misunderstanding of testosterone’s effects.
What is the estimated number of hormones currently known?
At least eighty, possibly up to a hundred
What did Brown-Séquard report feeling after his experiment?
Frisky as a forty-year-old
This feeling was entirely psychological.
Why do mammalian testes contain almost no testosterone?
Because it is sent out into the body as quickly as it is made
Mammals manufacture very little testosterone.
What term did E. H. Starling coin in 1905?
Hormone
The term means ‘to set in motion’ in Greek.
When was the first journal devoted to endocrinology founded?
1917
Who is considered the real father of endocrinology?
Thomas Addison
What serious medical condition is named after Thomas Addison?
Addison’s disease
What is Addison’s disease?
A degenerative disorder of the adrenal glands
How common is Addison’s disease?
About one person in ten thousand
Who was the most famous sufferer of Addison’s disease?
John F. Kennedy
What hormone imbalance causes Addison’s disease?
Cortisol levels
What role does cortisol play in the body?
Regulates blood pressure
What hormone was discovered by Jeffrey Friedman in 1995?
Leptin
Where is leptin produced?
In fat cells
What is the primary function of leptin?
Helps to regulate appetite
What was the outcome of human clinical trials with leptin?
Volunteers weighed the same after a year of injections
What is ghrelin primarily associated with?
Appetite regulation
Where is ghrelin produced?
Mostly in the stomach
True or False: Appetite is influenced by a single hormone.
False
Appetite is influenced by multiple factors including thyroid gland, genetics, culture, mood, and more.
What hormone is often referred to as ‘the hug hormone’?
Oxytocin
What functions does oxytocin serve?
Generates feelings of attachment, directs uterine contractions, initiates milk production
Who was Adolf Butenandt?
A German biochemist known for his work on hormones
What did Butenandt distill from urine donated by policemen?
Androsterone
What is one of the roles of testosterone in males?
Makes a man fertile and influences his behavior
What happens to testosterone levels in men as they age?
They fall by about 1 percent a year starting in their forties
What is the liver’s weight compared to the brain?
About 3.3 pounds
What is the liver’s primary function?
Manufactures hormones, proteins, and bile
What is nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) associated with?
Being overweight or obese
How many metabolic processes does the liver take part in?
About five hundred
What is unique about the liver’s regeneration?
It can grow back to its original size after two-thirds is removed
What is a common misconception about the causes of liver disease?
That it is mostly caused by excessive alcohol consumption
What does NAFLD stand for?
Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
NAFLD is a condition characterized by the accumulation of excess fat in the liver, not due to alcohol consumption.
What percentage of children and adolescents in the United States are estimated to have fatty livers?
10.7 percent
This statistic highlights the concerning trend of NAFLD emerging in younger populations.
What is a significant risk factor for hepatitis C?
Contaminated blood transfusions and sharing needles
These practices were particularly common among individuals born between 1945 and 1965.
How long can hepatitis C live within a victim without them knowing?
Forty years or more
This long incubation period contributes to the stealthy nature of the disease.
What organ is considered the seat of courage in historical beliefs?
Liver
This belief led to the term ‘lily-livered’ to describe someone cowardly.
What are the four humors in ancient medical theory?
- Black bile
- Yellow bile
- Blood
- Phlegm
These humors were believed to influence health and temperament.
What is the primary function of the pancreas?
Produces insulin and digestive enzymes
It plays a crucial role in regulating blood sugar and digesting fats.
What is the size and shape of the pancreas?
About six inches long and shaped like a banana
This unique shape helps it fit behind the stomach.
What is the spleen’s function in the body?
Monitors blood cells and aids the immune system
It also acts as a reservoir for blood.
What mnemonic aids medical students in remembering the spleen’s attributes?
Counting upward in odd numbers: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11
These numbers correspond to its size and position.
What does the gallbladder do?
Stores bile from the liver
Bile is important for digestion, particularly of fats.
What is a common complication associated with the gallbladder?
Gallstones
Gallstones can block the gallbladder outlet and cause pain.
Who performed one of the first surgical removals of a gallbladder?
William Stewart Halsted
He conducted the operation on his mother in 1882.
What is the primary function of the kidneys?
Filter wastes from the blood
They also regulate blood chemistry and maintain salt and water balance.
How much water do the kidneys process daily?
About 190 quarts
This is equivalent to the volume of a typical bath.
What is the urinary bladder’s primary role?
Stores urine for disposal
It does not produce hormones or play a role in body chemistry.
What is the historical significance of the word ‘bladder’?
One of the oldest words in the body, dating from Anglo-Saxon times
It has remained true to its original pronunciation for over a thousand years.
What is lithotomy?
Stone removal procedure
Historically associated with extreme pain and risk.
What was Samuel Pepys’s stone removal experience?
He had a tennis ball-sized stone removed in 1658
His experience was traumatic and left him bedridden for weeks.
What is the commonest cause of kidney failure?
Diabetes
Obesity and high blood pressure are also significant contributing factors.
