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AS level Psychology > 7. Research Methods > Flashcards

7. Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

Name the stages of the experimental/scientific method

A
  1. observe
  2. State expectations
  3. Design a study - See if your expectations were correct
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2
Q

What are the types of experiment?

A
  1. Laboratory experiments
  2. Field experiment
  3. Quasi experiments
  4. Natural experiments
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3
Q

What is a laboratory experiment ?

A
  • In a very highly controlled environment
  • Researchers manipulate the IV
  • They control the IV and DV
  • This is the least valid and most realistic
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4
Q

What is a Field experiment?

A
  • takes place in a natural, everyday setting
  • researchers manipulate the IV and record the effect on the DV
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5
Q

What is a Quasi experiment?

A
    • almost an experiment
    • IV is based on an existing difference between people eg. gender
    • no-one manipulates the IV but the DV is controlled
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6
Q

What is a natural experiment?

A
  • take advantage of pre-existing IV
  • IV is naturally occurring it would happen if the researcher wasn’t there. The DV is all not controlled.
  • This is the most valid but least realistic.
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7
Q

Which of the types of experiment are most valid and most realistic? place in order

A

Least to most valid:

Most to least realistic:

Lab

field

Quasi

Natural

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8
Q

What are two weakness’ to laboratory experiments?

A
  1. Artificial and often involved a contrived situation. As a result, participants may not behave naturally, leading to lower ecological validity
  2. There is the possibility of participant effects, investigator effects and demand characteristics because of the artificial cal situation.
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9
Q

Give two strengths of laboratory experiments.

A
  1. well controlled so extraneous/confounding variables are minimalised. This means that there is higher internal validity.
  2. Can be easily replicated to see if the same results occur, demonstrating external validity.
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10
Q

Give four weakness’ to field experiments.

A
  1. more time consuming and therefore more expensive than laboratory experiments
  2. Less control over extraneous / confounding variables than lab experiments which reduces internal validity.
  3. Many of the lab experiments also apply eg. IV may lack realism
  4. Participants not being aware that they are being studied leads to a major ethical issue.
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11
Q

What are two strengths to field experiments?

A
  1. Less artificial than lab experiments and usually higher in mundane realism and therefore ecological validity
  2. Participants are usually not aware of being studied so their behaviour is more natural.
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12
Q

What are 2 strengths of natural experiments?

A
  1. Allow research to be done where the independent variable can’t be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons
  2. Enables psychologists to study the ‘real’ problems such as the effects of a disaster on health, so there is increased mundane realism and ecological validity.
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13
Q

What are 4 weakness’ of natural experiments?

A
  1. cannot demonstrate casual relationships because the independent variable is not deliberately manipulated
  2. random allocation of participants to conditions is not possible. There may be confounding variables that are uncontrollable which compromises internal validity.
  3. the same may have unique characteristics, such as being part of a particularly helpful and pro-social community, meaning that the findings can’t be generalised to others to other groups of people.
  4. can only be used where conditions vary naturally
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14
Q

What are 5 weakness’ of quasi experiments?

A
  1. can only be used where conditions vary naturally
  2. participants may be aware of being studied, thus reducing internal validity
  3. The dependent variable may be a fairly artificial task, reducing mundane realism and ecological validity
  4. random allocation of participants to conditions is not possible. therefore there may be confounding variables that can’t be controlled which compromises internal validity
  5. Cannot demonstrate causal relationships because the independent variable is not deliberately manipulated
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15
Q

What is a strength to quasi experiments?

A

It allows comparison between different types of people.

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16
Q

What are the types of validity ?

A
  1. Internal validity
  2. control validity
  3. construct validity
  4. mundane realism
  5. external validity
  6. Ecological validity
  7. Population validity
  8. historical validity
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17
Q

Define - internal validity

A

what happens inside the study

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18
Q

Define - control validity

A

If the independent variable caused the effect. (however if any other factors caused an effect on the dependant variable)

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19
Q

Define - construct validity

A

how solid the idea behind the study actually is (if another test gives better results than it lacks construct validity)

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20
Q

Define - mundane realism

A

the extent that the study reflects the real-world

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21
Q

Define - external validity

A

how well you can generalise from research participants to people, places and times outside the study these can all be effected by internal validity

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22
Q

Define - ecological validity

A

how well you can generalise to different places and settings

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23
Q

Define - population validity

A

how well you can generalise to different people or populations

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24
Q

Define - historical validity

A

how well you can generalise to different times

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25
Q

What are three ethical issues when conducting research?

A
  • people under 16 - obtain informed content - debrief after telling any deception and allowing withdrawal of data
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26
Q

What are three aspects of internal validity?

A
  • Whether the IV produced the change in the DV - Whether the researcher is really testing what she of he intended to test - Whether the study possessed (or lacked) mundane realism.
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27
Q

What are the three types of external validity?

A
  • ecological - population - historical
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28
Q

Define - Hypothesis

A

A statement of what the researcher believes to be true.

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29
Q

What is a confederate ?

A

An individual in a study who is not a real participant and has been instructed how to behave by the investigators

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30
Q

Define - diectional hypothesis

A

States the direction of the predicted difference between two conditions or two groups of participants

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31
Q

Define - non-directional hypothesis

A

Predicts simply that there is a difference between two conditions or two groups of participants, without stating the direction if the difference

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32
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

A small-scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design, with the view of making improvements.

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33
Q

When would you use a directional hypothesis?

A

When past research (theory or a study) suggests that the findings will go a certain direction as it makes sense to frame the hypothesis in the direction indicated.

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34
Q

When would you use a non-directional hypothesis?

A

When there is no past research or past research is contradictory. More appropriate if exploring a new area where informed expectations about how people might behave have yet to be established through research.

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35
Q

Why are pilot studies done?

A

In order to find out if certain aspects of the design do or don’t work. These use a few typical participants and sabe investing a large amount of time and money into a full scale experiment.

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36
Q

Define - Counterbalancing

A

An experimental technique used to overcome order effects when using a repeated measures design. Counterbalancing ensures that each condition is tested first or second in equal amounts.

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37
Q

Define - Experimental design

A

A set of procedures used to control the influence of factors such as participant variables in an experiment.

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38
Q

Explain the independent groups design

A

When participants are allocated to two (or more) groups representing different levels of the IV. Allocation is usually random techniques.

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39
Q

Explain the matched pairs design

A

Pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables such as age and IQ. One member of each pair is allocated to one of the conditions under test and the second person is allocated to the other condition.

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40
Q

What is an order effect?

A

In a repeated measures design, an extraneous variable arising from the order in which conditions are presented eg. a practice effect or fatigue effect.

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41
Q

Define - Random allocation

A

Allocating participants to experimental groups or conditions using random techniques.

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42
Q

Explain the repeated measures design

A

Each participant takes part in every condition under the test ie. each level of the IV.

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43
Q

Define - Demand characteristics

A

A cue that makes participants unconsciously aware of the aims of the study or helps participants work out what the researcher expects to find

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44
Q

Define - investigator effects

A

AKA investigator / experimenter bias Anything that an investigator does that has an effect on a participants performance in a study other than what was intended. This includes direct effects and indirect effects. Investigator effects may act as a confounding or extraneous variable.

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45
Q

Define - Direct effects

A

As a consequence of the investigator interacting with the participants.

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46
Q

Define - Indirect effects

A

As a consequence of the investigator designing the study

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47
Q

Define - Bias

A

A systematic distortion

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48
Q

Define - generalisation

A

Applying the findings of a particular study to the population

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49
Q

What is opportunity sample?

A

A sample of participants produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study

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50
Q

What are the types of sampling?

A
  • Opportunity - Random - Stratified - Systematic - volunteer
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51
Q

Define - population

A

The group of people that the researcher is interested in. The group of people about whom generalisations can be selected.

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52
Q

What is random sampling?

A

A sample of participants produced by using a random technique such that every members of the target population being tested has an equal chance of being selected.

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53
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

A sample of participants produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the population. Participants are then selected randomly from the subgroups / levels.

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54
Q

Define - sampling

A

The method of participants, such as random, opportunity and volunteer sampling, or to sample behaviours in an observation such as an event or time sampling

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55
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

A sample obtained by selecting every nth person. This can be a random sample if the first person is selected using a random method; you then select every nth person after that.

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56
Q

What is volunteer bias?

A

A form of sampling bias (distortion) because volenteer participants have special characteristics, such as usually being more highly motivated than randomly selected participants.

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57
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

A sample of participants that relies solely on volunteers to make up the sample. Also called a self-selected sample.

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58
Q

What is another name for volunteer sampling?

A

Self-selected sample

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59
Q

What are the limitations of the independent group designs?

A
  • You need more participants than a repeated measures design in order to end up with the same amount of data. - One of the tests may be more difficult than the other so that is why the same participants do better in one condition - No control of participants variables. Which could act as a confounding variable.
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60
Q

What are the stengths of the independent group designs?

A
  • participants are unlikely to guess the aims of the experiment because they only take part in one group. therefore they are less likely to show demand characteristics so the results are more likely to be valid - There would be no order effects because each participant only does one condition - It doesn’t matter if one test is more difficult than the other because different participants take part in the different groups. - Because there are different participants in each of the conditions, they can be tested at the same time, saving time and effort.
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61
Q

What are the limitations of the repeated measures design?

A
  • The order of the conditions may affect performance (an order effect) - As participants do all the conditions, they may guess the aim of the experiment, which may affect their behaviour. - One of the tests may be more difficult than the other so that is why the same participants do better in one condition - A gap may be needed between conditions to counter the effects of boredom or fatigue. Each condition may also need different materials
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62
Q

What are the strengths of the repeated measures design?

A
  • Controls participants variables because the same participants are in all conditions - You only need half the participants as an independent group and match pairs design.
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63
Q

What are the limitations of the match pairs designs?

A
  • Very time consuming and difficult to match participants on key variables. The researcher probably has to start with a large group of participants to ensure that they can obtain matched pairs on key variables. - It is not possible to control all participants variables because you can only match on variables known to be relevant, but it could be that others are important
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64
Q

What are the strengths of the match pairs designs?

A
  • controls some important variables (ones that the researcher can think of before the experiment)
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65
Q

How can you combat weaknesses of the repeatable measures design?

A

Counterbalancing - ABBA to deal with order effects - avoiding participants guessing the aims of a study, a cover story can be presented about the purpose of the test.

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66
Q

How can you combat weaknesses of the independent groups design?

A

Randomly allocate participants to conditions which (theoretically) distribute participant variables evenly.

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67
Q

How can you combat weaknesses of the matched pair design?

A
  • Restricting the number of variables to match on to make it easier and quicker. - Conduct a pilot study to consider key variables that might be important when matching
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68
Q

What does counterbalancing do?

A

Ensures that each condition in a repeated measures design is tested first or second in equal amounts, if participants do the same memory test in the morning then in the afternoon we might expect they would get better as they have practiced - this is called an order effect. To combat you should have two conditions and so AB BA or ABBA to get an average over all.

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69
Q

What are the two types of counterbalancing?

A

AB BA - do A then B or B then A ABBA - Do A then B then B then A

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70
Q

what are three ways you can deal with problems of demand characteristics and investigator effects?

A
  • Single blind design - Double blind design - Experimental realism
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71
Q

Define - single blind design

A

The participant is not aware of the research aims and/pr of which condition of the experiment they are receiving. This prevents the participant seeking cues about the aims and reacting to them

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72
Q

Define - Double blind design

A

Both the participant and the person conducting the experiment are ‘blind’ to the aims and/or the hypothesis. therefore the person conducting the investigation is less likely to produce cues about what he/she expects.

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73
Q

Define - Experimental realism

A

If the researcher makes an experimental task sufficiently engaging the participant pays attention to the task and not the fact that they are being observed.

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74
Q

Define - Participant variables

A

Any characteristic of individual participants. They only occur in independent group designs as they are controlled in the other designs. Eg. Age, Intelligence, motivation, experience and gender.

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75
Q

Define - situational variables

A

Features of a research situation that may influence participants’ behaviour and thus act as EV or CVs. They are only CV if they vary systematically with the IV.

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76
Q

What are the strengths of opportunity sampling?

A
  • Easiest method - as use the first suitable participants - Less time consuming
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77
Q

What are the limitations of opportunity sampling?

A
  • Inevitably biased as sampling is drawn from a small part of the population
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78
Q

What are the strengths to random sampling?

A
  • Unbiased as all members of the target population have an equal chance of selection
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79
Q

What are the limitations of random sampling?

A
  • Need a list of all the members of the population and then contact all of those selected which is very time consuming
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80
Q

What are the strengths of stratified sampling?

A
  • Likely to be more representative and there is a proportional and randomly selected representation of the subgroups.
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81
Q

What is the limitation of satisfied sampling?

A
  • Very time consuming to identify subgroups, randomly select then contact - Also some subgroups may be less inclined to help than others.
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82
Q

What is the strength of systematic sampling?

A
  • Unbiased as participants are selected using an objective system.
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83
Q

What is the limitation of systematic sampling?

A
  • Not truly unbiased/random unless you select a number using a random method and start with this person then every nth person - Also the list may be in an order so wouldn’t give a generalised response
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84
Q

What is the strength of volunteer sampling?

A
  • Gives access to a variety of participants which may make the sample more representative and less biased.
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85
Q

What is a limitation of volunteer sampling?

A
  • sample is biased in other ways because participants are likely to be more highly motivated and/or with extra time on their hands. They might be more highly motivated to be helpful, or more broke and needing the money offered for participation. This could result in volunteer bias
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86
Q

What are the three types of random techniques?

A
  1. The lottery method 2. Random number table 3. Random number generators
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87
Q

What is the lottery method?

A

Draw numbers ‘out of a hat’

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88
Q

How is the lottery method taken out?

A
  1. Obtain a list of all the people in the population. This may simply be the names of all the people in your school 2. Put the names in a lottery barrel or hat. 3. select the number of names required
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89
Q

What is a random number table?

A

A printed table of numbers.

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90
Q

How is a random number table made?

A
  1. Every member of the population is given a number 2. The starting position in the table is determined blindly by placing your finger anywhere. 3. If your population is less than 100 you only need to look at two digit numbers.
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91
Q

What is a random number generator?

A

A calculator with the function of generating a random number.

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92
Q

How do you generate a random number?

A
  1. Number every member of the population 2. Using for example excel type = RAND(100) to get a random number 1-100.
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93
Q

What are ethical issues?

A

Conflicts about what is acceptable. Everyone conducting an experiment is expected to be aware of their responsibility to ensure participants are treated in an ethically appropriate way.

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94
Q

What is the BPS?

A

British Psychological Society It outlines the ethical standards that must be abided by.

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95
Q

What are the BPS standards? and explain.

A
  1. Respect for the dignity and worth of all persons. Including standards of privacy and confidentiality and informed consent. 2. Competence - high standards should be maintained in the psychologists professional work. 3. Responsibility - They have a responsibility to their client, the general public and to the science. This includes protection from physical or psychological harm as well as a debriefing. 4. Integrity - Honest and accurate including reporting the findings and any limitations and bringing incidents of misconduct to the attention of the BPS.
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96
Q

What were the BPS standards?

A
  1. Respect 2.Competence 3. Responsibility 4.Integrity
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97
Q

What is informed consent for researchers?

A

Revealing the true aims of the study or at least telling participants what is actually going to happen. However this may cause participants to guess the aim of the study and so they may not always want to reveal the true aims or even the full details of what is going to happen.

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98
Q

What is informed consent for the participants?

A

The believe they should be told what they will be required to do in the study so that they can make an informed decision about whether they wish to participate. They say it is a basic human right. This also means they can predict the risks or benefits of taking part in any study.

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99
Q

Explain deception from the researchers point of view.

A

It may be necessary to hide the true aims otherwise participants may alter their behaviour and the study could be meaningless. A distinction should be made between withholding some details and providing false information.

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100
Q

Explain deception from the participants point of view.

A

It is unethical as they should not deceive anyone without good reason. They may be able to give consent without all the details and so may be caused harm. They may also lead to the belief that psychologists are untrustworthy.

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101
Q

What did Diana Baumrind state?

A

1985 Argued deception was morally wrong on the basis of three generally accepted ethical rules in western society: - The right to informed consent - The obligation of researchers to protect the welfare of the participant - The responsibility of researchers to be trustworthy

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102
Q

Define - Confidentiality

A

Concerns the communication of personal information from one person to another, and the trust that the information will be protected.

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103
Q

Define - Deception

A

A participant is not told the true aims of a study, eg. what participation will involve, and thus cannot give truly informed consent.

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104
Q

Define - Informed consent

A

Participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order that they can make an informed decision about whether to participate.

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105
Q

Define - Privacy

A

A person’s right to control the flow of information about themselves.

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106
Q

Define - Protection from harm

A

During a research study, participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects, such as physical injury, lowered self-esteem or embarrassment

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107
Q

Define - Right to withdraw

A

Participants can stop participants in a study if they are uncomfortable in any way. This is especially important in cases where it not possible to give fully informed consent. Participants should also have the right to refuse permission for the researcher to use any data they produced.

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108
Q

Explain the right to withdraw from the researchers perspective

A

if participants do leave during the study this will bias the results because the participants who have stayed are likely to be more obedient, or they might be more hardy - leading to a biased sample.

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109
Q

Explain the right to withdraw from the participants perspective

A

It is important as if they feel uncomfortable or distressed they should be able to withdraw. This is especially important if they have been deceived and or if it is not the way it had been previously believed. This right is often compromised by payment and so it may become harder to withdraw.

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110
Q

Explain the protection from physical and psychological harm in the eye of the researcher

A

Some of the more important questions in psychology may involve a degree of distress to participants. It is also hard to predict the outcome of certain procedures and so the guarantee is hard.

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111
Q

Explain the protection from physical and psychological harm for the participants

A

Nothing should happen to them during a study that causes harm. There are many ways that physical or psychological harm can be caused and it is seen as acceptable if the risk of harm is no greater than a participant would be likely to experience in ordinary life and if the participant is in the same state after the experiment as before it t, unless they have been given their informed consent to be treated otherwise.

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112
Q

Explain what confidentiality is in the view of the researcher

A

It is difficult to protect confidentiality as the researcher wishes to publish his findings. They may make a point of guaranteeing anonymity however it is sometimes easy to know who was involved in the study.

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113
Q

Explain what confidentiality mean for the participant

A

The data protection act makes confidentiality a legal right. It can only be acceptable for personal data to be recorded if the data are not made available in a form that identifies the participant.

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114
Q

What does the data protection act do?

A

This makes confidentiality a legal right. It can only be acceptable for personal data to be recorded if the data are not made available in a form that identifies the participant.

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115
Q

Explain what privacy means for the researcher

A

It may be difficult to avoid invasion of privacy when studying participants without their awareness for example a field experiment

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116
Q

Explain what privacy means for the participants

A

People do not expect to be observed by others in certain situations eg. when the privacy of their own homes, while they might expect this when sitting on a park bench in public.

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117
Q

State the strategies to deal with ethical issues

A
  • Ethical guidelines (code of conduct) - Cost-benefit analysis - Ethics committees - Punishment
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118
Q

How do ethical guidelines prevent ethical issues?

A

The BPS regularly update its ethical guidelines. The current version is the code of ethics and conduct (BPS 2009). The intention of such guidelines is to tell psychologists which behaviours are not acceptable and to give guidance on how to deal with ethical dilemmas

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119
Q

How does cost-benefit analysis help combat ethical issues?

A

We can judge the costs against the benefits to make sure that the results we get with out-way any problems caused by doing the experiment.

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120
Q

In what ways can we do cost-benefit analysis?

A
  • Participants point of view - (where we list distress and lost of time versus payment and feeling of contribution) - Society at large - value of improving peoples lives versus the possibility that individuals may be harmed - Group of which the individual belongs - When investigating cultural differences it may not cause harm to the individuals as finding may bias treatment of the individuals cultural group (for good or bad)
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121
Q

How can ethics committees help combat ethical issues?

A

They must approve any study before it begins. It looks at all possible ethical issues raised in any research proposal and how the researcher aims to deal with them, weighing up the benefits of the research against the possible costs.

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122
Q

How can punishment’s combat ethical issues?

A

They may decide to bar the person from practicing as a psychologist. However it is not a legal matter and so they cannot be sent to jail.

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123
Q

What is the BPS code of ethics and conduct?

A

The BPS code of ethics identifies ethical issues but also relates them to a conduct.

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124
Q

What is the BPS’s view on informed consent?

A

It says that a failure to make full disclosure prior to obtaining informed consent requires additional safeguards to protect the welfare and dignity of the participants.

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125
Q

Which people may need special safe-guiding procedures in order to gain informed consent?

A
  • Research with children (under 16) - Or if they have impairments that limit understanding and or communication to the extend of not being able to give consent.
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126
Q

What is the BPS’s view on deception?

A

The central principle is the reaction of participants when deception is revealed; if this leads to discomfort, anger or objections from participants then the deception is inappropriate

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127
Q

What in the eyes of BPS would make deception inappropriate ?

A

If this leads to discomfort, anger or objections from participants

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128
Q

What is BPS’s view on protection from harm?

A

If harm, unusual discomfort or other negative consequences for the individuals future life might occur, the investigators must obtain the disinterested approval of independent advisors, inform the participants and obtain the real informed consent from each of them

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129
Q

What are the drawbacks of ethical guidelines?

A
  • Inevitably rather general as the virtual impossibility of covering every conceivable situation that a researcher may encounter. - They also absolve the individual researcher of any responsibility because the researcher can simply say ‘i followed the guidelines’
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130
Q

What is the Canadian’s approach on ethical guidelines?

A

They present a series of hypothetical dilemmas and invite psychologists to discuss these.

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131
Q

What is the strength of the Canadian approach on ethical guidelines?

A

It encourages debate, whereas the BPS and APA approach tends to close off discussions about what is right and wrong because the answers are provided.

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132
Q

What is the drawbacks of cost-benefit analysis?

A
  • It is difficult to predict noth costs and benefits prior to conducting the study. - This difficulty continues after. - It is hard to quantify each eg. a persons distress cost.
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133
Q

What did Diana Baumrind argue in terms of the cost-benefit analysis?

A

1959 - It solves nothing as you simply exchange one set of dilemmas for another. - Said to legitimise unethical practices - Eg. suggesting deception and harm are acceptable in many situations provided the benefits are high enough

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134
Q

How can you deal with informed consent?

A
  • Participants askes to formally indicate their agreement to participate. This should contain comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role - Or you can gain presumptive consent - They must also offer the right to withdraw
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135
Q

What are the limitations of methods to deal with informed consent?

A
  • The full information may invalidate the purpose of the study - It does not guarantee that participates really understand what they are getting themselves in for - Presumptive consent may just be what they think will be okay but this may be different when the participant actually experiences it
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136
Q

How do you deal with deception?

A
  • The need for deception should be approved by an ethics committee, weighing up benefits against costs - The participants should be fully debriefed after the study. - This should give them an opportunity to discuss concerns and to withhold their data from the study - This is a form of retrospective informed consent.
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137
Q

What are the limitations with the methods of dealing with deception?

A
  • Cost-benefit decisions are flawed as they involve subjective judgements and some may not be apparent until after the study - Debriefing doesn’t turn the clock back they may feel embarrassed or have a lowered self-esteem after the study
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138
Q

How can you deal with the right to withdraw?

A
  • Participants should be informed at the beginning of the study that they have the right to withdraw at any point of the study without giving a reason.
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139
Q

What are the limitations of dealing with the right to withdraw?

A
  • Participants may feel they cant as it may spoil the study - In many studies the participants are paid of rewards in some way and so they may not be able to withdraw.
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140
Q

How can we deal with protection from harm?

A
  • Avoid any risks greater than experiences in everyday life - Stop the study if harm is suspected
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141
Q

What are the limitations of the methods to protect from harm?

A

Harm may not be apparent at the time of the study and only judged later with hindsight

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142
Q

How can we deal with the problem of confidentiality?

A

Researchers should not record the names of any participants and should use numbers or false names.

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143
Q

What are the limitations of the method to combat confidentiality?

A

Sometimes possible to work out who the participants are using information that has been provided. Therefore, confidentiality may not be possible

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144
Q

How can we combat the problem of privacy?

A

Do not study anyone without their informed consent unless it is in a public place and public behaviour

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145
Q

What are the limitations with the methods of combatting privacy?

A

There is no universal agreement about what constitutes a public place

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146
Q

Define - cost-benefit analysis

A

A systematic approach to estimating the negatives and positives of any research.

147
Q

Define - Debriefing

A

A post-research interview designed to inform participants of the true nature of the study and to restore them to the state they were in at the start of the study. It may also be used to gain useful feedback about the procedures in the study. Debriefing is not an ethical issue its a mean s of dealing with an ethical issue.

148
Q

Define - Ethical guidelines (code of conduct)

A

A set of principles designed to help professionals behave honestly and with integrity

149
Q

Define - Ethics committee

A

A group of people within a research institution that must approve a study before it begins

150
Q

Define - Presumptive consent

A

A method of dealing with lack of informed consent or deception, by asking a group of people who are similar to the participants whether they would agree to take part in a study. If this group of people consents to the procedures in the proposed study it is presumed that the real participants would also have agreed

151
Q

Why should an experiment be empirical?

A

This makes it objective - independent of beliefs and opinions It should be based on data and not a theory. The best way to do this is to collect quantitative data and have strictly controlled variables. This makes it easy to replicate and also establishes a cause and effect

152
Q

What is the scientific process?

A
  1. Ask a question - make an observation and ask why or how it happens. 2. Suggest an answer, or part of an answer, by forming a theory 3. Make a prediction or hypothesis - a specific testable statement 4. Carry out a test - to provide evidence that will support the hypothesis or help disprove it
153
Q

What happens between you stating a theory and making it public knowledge?

A
  1. Publish results in scientific journals. These contain scientific reports. This undergoes Peer Review. 2. Other scientists read the published theory and try to repeat it - This can make new predictions that can be tested by other new experiments 3. If all th experiments in the world provide evidence to back it up, the theory is thought to be fact. 4. If new evidence comes to light that conflicts the current evidence the theory is questioned all over again. This leads to more rounds of testing with the new evidence and so to see which theory prevails.
154
Q

What is peer review?

A
  • A process used to ensure the integrity of published scientific work. Before, publication, scientific work is sent to experts in that field (peers) so they can assess the quality of the work. - This keeps scientists honest - It helps validate conclusions - mean published theories, data and conclusions are more trustworthy. But it can’t guarantee conclusions are 100% right. - Sometimes mistakes are made and bad science is published. Peer review isn’t perfect, but it’s probably the best way for scientists to self-regulate their work, and to ensure reliable scientific work is published.
155
Q

What does peer review do?

A
  • This keeps scientists honest - It helps validate conclusions - mean published theories, data and conclusions are more trustworthy. But it can’t guarantee conclusions are 100% right. - Sometimes mistakes are made and bad science is published. Peer review isn’t perfect, but it’s probably the best way for scientists to self-regulate their work, and to ensure reliable scientific work is published.
156
Q

What is an observational study?

A

In this study a researcher watches or listens to participants engaging in whatever behaviour is being studied. The observations are recorded.

157
Q

What are the two types of observation?

A
  • Naturalistic - Controlled - Overt - Covert - Participant - Non-participant
158
Q

What is observed in a naturalistic observation?

A

Behaviour is studied in a natural situation where everything has been left as it is normally. It does not interfere in any way with what is happening.

159
Q

Give an example of naturalistic observation.

A

Watching an infant school playing in their normal environment. This might be a nursery school if that is an environment that the infant is used to. Observing an animal in a zoo as the environment was normal to them.

160
Q

What happens in a controlled observation?

A

Some variables in the environment are regulated by the researcher, reducing the naturalness of the environment and most importantly the natural naturalness of the behaviour being studied. Participants are likely to know they are being studied and the study may be conducted in a laboratory.

161
Q

What does a controlled observation allow the researcher to do?

A

Allowing the researcher to investigate the effects of certain things on behaviour, eg. Bandura’s study of social learning theory as various toys were present to see how the children would interact with these.

162
Q

Give an example of a controlled observation

A

Bandura’s study of social learning theory as various toys were present to see how the children would interact with these.

163
Q

What are overt observations?

A

In both naturalistic and controlled observations the person being observed may be aware of the observations.

164
Q

How can overt observations be combatted?

A

It is likely to have an effect on the naturalness of participants’ behaviour, observers try to be as unobtrusive as possible. They may even use one-way mirrors so they can be hidden from view.

165
Q

What happens in covert observations?

A

Participants do not have any knowledge of being observed, at least not before or during the study. They may be informed afterwards.

166
Q

What is a non-participant observation?

A

In most cases an observer is merely watching the behaviour of others and acts as a non-participant. The observer observes from a distance ad does not interact with the people being observed.

167
Q

What is a participant observation?

A

The observer is part of the group being observed. In both covert and overt observations the observer may be a participant unbeknown to the people observed.

168
Q

Define - controlled observation

A

A form of investigation in which behaviour is observed but under conditions where certain variables have been organised by the researcher.

169
Q

Define - Covert observations

A

Observing people without their knowledge. Knowing that behaviour is being observed is likely to alter a participant’s behaviour.

170
Q

Define - Inter-observer reliability

A

The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour.

171
Q

Define - Naturalistic observation

A

An observation carried out in an everyday setting, in which the investigator does not interfere in any way but merely observes the behaviour(s) in question.

172
Q

Define - Non-participant observation

A

The observer is separate from the people being observed.

173
Q

Define - Observer bias

A

Observers’ expectations affect what they see and hear. This reduces the validity of the observations.

174
Q

Define - Overt observation

A

Observational studies where participants are aware that their behaviour is being studied.

175
Q

Define - Participant observation

A

Observations made by someone who is also participating in the activity being observed, which may affect their objectivity.

176
Q

Evaluate observational studies in general

A
  • What people say they do is often different from what they actually do, so observations give a different take on behaviour than other research methods. - Such studies are also able to capture spontaneous and unexpected behaviour. However, observer bias and it is difficult to be objective as peoples observations are easily distorted by their expectations. - They provide information about what people actually do buy they don’t provide information about what people think or feel.
177
Q

How can you reduce observer bias?

A

Using more than one observer may reduce the rick which would effect the validity of the observations.

178
Q

Evaluate naturalistic and controlled observations

A
  • In naturalistic observations it gives a realistic picture of natural, spontaneous behaviour so is high in ecological validity - Little control of all the other things that are happening, which may mean that something unknown to the observer may account for the behaviour observed. - In a controlled observation an observer can focus on particular aspects of behaviour, but this control comes at the cost of the environment feeling unnatural and then participants’ behaviour is also less natural as a consequence.
179
Q

Evaluate overt and covert observations

A
  • In covert - Participants are unaware of being observed and thus their behaviour is more natural - In covert - There are important ethical issues related - It is acceptable to observe people in a public place as long as the behaviours being observed are not private ones.
180
Q

What is unethical about covert observations?

A

It is acceptable to observe people in a public place as long as the behaviours being observed are not private ones.

181
Q

Evaluate participant and non-participant observations

A
  • NP - likely to be more objective; they are not part of the group being observed - P - May provide special insights into behaviour from the ‘inside’ that may not otherwise be gained - P - more likely to be overt and thus have issues of participant awareness - P - In covert there are ethical issues.
182
Q

State the strengths for covert observations

A

Investigator effects and demand characteristics are less likely

183
Q

State the limitations of covert observations

A

Less ethical: lack of informed consent

184
Q

State the strengths for overt observations

A

More ethical: informed

185
Q

State the limitations of overt observations

A

Investigator effects and demand characteristics are more likely

186
Q

State the strengths for participant observations

A

In‐depth data is gathered due to close proximity

187
Q

State the limitations for participant observations

A

Investigator effects and demand characteristics are more likely

188
Q

State the strengths for non-participant observations

A

Investigator effects and demand characteristics are less likely

189
Q

State the limitations for non-participant observations

A

Researcher might miss behaviours of interest due to lack of proximity

190
Q

State the strengths for naturalistic observations

A

Higher level of ecological validity

191
Q

State the limitations for naturalistic observations

A

Issues with replication and ascertaining reliability

192
Q

State the strengths for controlled observations

A

Can be replicated to check reliability

193
Q

State the limitations for controlled observations

A

Lower levels of ecological validity

194
Q

State the strengths for structured observations

A

Higher levels of inter‐ observer reliability

195
Q

State the limitations for structured observations

A

Less rich data can lack internal validity as researchers miss important behaviours

196
Q

State the strengths for unstructured observations

A

Rich data leads to greater internal validity

197
Q

State the limitations for unstructured observations

A

Lower levels of inter‐ observer reliability

198
Q

What are two methods of getting observations?

A
  • Time sampling - Event sampling
199
Q

What is time sampling?

A

This is where an observer records behaviour at prescribed intervals, e.g. every 10 seconds.

200
Q

What is event sampling?

A

This is where an observer records the number of times that the target behaviour occurs, e.g. using a tally.

201
Q

What are the strengths of time sampling?

A

Time sampling methods allow for a better use of time since fewer observations are made.

202
Q

What are the limitations of time sampling?

A

Not every behaviour of relevance to the investigation will be counted if it occurs in between the time frames allocated.

203
Q

What are the strengths of event sampling?

A

Every behaviour of interest to the researcher, in theory, will be counted from the beginning through to the end of the observation.

204
Q

What are the limitations of event sampling?

A

There is the possibility that some behaviours could be missed if there is too much happening at the same time, resulting in some not being coded.

205
Q

What are questionnaires?

A

Questionnaires are a type of ‘self‐report’ technique, where participants provide information relating to their thoughts, feelings and behaviours. They can be designed in different ways, and can comprise of open questions, closed questions or a mixture of both.

206
Q

What are the two types of questions?

A
  • Open - Closed
207
Q

What are open questions?

A

Open questions allow participants to answer however they wish, and thus generate qualitative data since there is no fixed number of responses to select from. Responses to these types of questions provide rich and detailed data which can provide insight into the unique human condition.

208
Q

What are the two types of data?

A
  • Qualitative - Quantitive
209
Q

What type of data do open questions generate?

A

Qualitative

210
Q

Evaluate open question questionnaires

A
  • Strength - less chance of researcher bias. This is especially true if the questionnaire is also anonymous, since the participant can answer the questions in their own words, without input from the researcher providing a set number of responses and less chance of the responses being influenced by the researcher’s expectations. - Limitations - Participants may answer in a socially desirable way, where they try to portray themselves in the best possible light to the researcher. This means that the open response may lack validity as it is not their natural response.
211
Q

What are closed questions?

A

Closed questions restrict the participant to a predetermined set of responses and generate quantitative data. There are different types of closed questions, including: checklist, Likert response scale and ranking scale.

212
Q

Give examples of types of closed questions.

A
  • Checklist - Likert response scale - Ranking scale.
213
Q

What type of data do closed questions generate?

A

Quantitative data

214
Q

What is a checklist?

A

This is a type of question where participants tick the answer(s) that apply to them. For example: What is the highest academic qualification you hold?

215
Q

What is the Likert Response Scale?

A

This is a type of question where participants rate on a scale their views/opinions on a question. For example: Psychology is the most interesting A‐Level subject. (Circle the number that applies). 1 2 3 4 5

216
Q

What is a ranking scale?

A

This is where participants place a list of items in their preferred order. For example: Rank the following activities according to how much time you spend on them each day. (1 = most time, 4 = least time).

217
Q

Evaluate closed question questionnaires

A
  • Advantage - Quantitative data collected. Making it easy to analyse the results statistically or in a graphical format. - Limitations - By sticking to a predetermined list of questions, the researcher is unable to pursue and explore responses that are of particular interest. - Limitation - Often produce a response bias. This can happen because the participant doesn’t take the time to read all the questions properly and, for example, selects ‘yes’ for each of their answers. This means that the data generated may lack internal validity.
218
Q

What should be considered when making a questionnaire?

A
  • Keep the terminology simple and clear. - Keep it as short as possible. - Be sensitive; avoid personal questions. If you must, collect personal information at the end. - Do not use leading questions. - Do not use questions that make assumptions or sweeping statements. - Pilot and modify the questionnaire.
219
Q

What are interviews?

A

Interviews are another type of self‐report technique which predominantly take place on a face‐to‐face basis, although they can also happen over the telephone.

220
Q

What are the types of interviews?

A
  • Structured - Unstructured - Semi-structured
221
Q

What is an interview schedule?

A

Responses are usually recorded, with the use of an interview schedule that the interviewer completes and/or audio or video recording, with the informed consent of the interviewee(s).

222
Q

What are structured interviews?

A

Structured interviews have the questions decided on in advance and they are asked in exactly the same order for each interviewee taking part. The interviewer uses an interview schedule and will often record the answers to each question by taking notes/ticking boxes on their schedule.

223
Q

What are the strengths of structured interviews?

A
  • Quantitative (numerical) data is easier to statistically analyse. Useful as direct comparisons can be made between groups of individuals so the researcher can look for patterns and trends in data. - The questions are standardised and asked in the same sequence every time to all participants, the interview is easily replicable to test for reliability.
224
Q

What way may researchers unconsciously introduce investigator bias?

A
  • Tone of voice - Body language - Intonations
225
Q

What are unstructured interviews?

A

Unstructured interviews are conducted more like a conversation, with the interviewer only facilitating the discussion rather than asking set questions. Very little is decided in advance (only the topic and questions needed to identify the interviewee). Therefore, this type of interview typically produces a large amount of rich qualitative data. Answers will usually be audio or video recorded, as to write them all down as quickly as they were spoken would be impossible for the interviewer, and would also spoil the relaxed atmosphere of the unstructured interview.

226
Q

What kind of data us collected during unstructured interviews?

A

Qualitative

227
Q

What are the strengths of unstructured interviews?

A
  • Can increase the validity of findings by significantly reducing the possibility of investigator effects. The open question schedule in unstructured interviews means that the investigator does not control the direction of the conversation to meet their own preconceived agenda. - Participants can justify their answers in their own words with opinions rather than trying to guess the aim of the study through any clues given. This is useful because it reduces the possibility of participants displaying demand characteristics in their interview responses. - Generate large quantities of rich and interesting qualitative data. This allows the interviewer to clarify the meaning and gain further information from the participant if required to full understand complex human behaviour.
228
Q

What are semi-structured interviews?

A

Semi‐structured interviews comprise of mostly prepared questions that can be supplemented with additional questions as seen fit by the interviewer at the time. As with unstructured interviews, the interviewer can deviate from the original questions and consequently this type of interview also typically produces rich qualitative data.

229
Q

Evaluate semi-structured interviews

A
  • Increase the validity of findings. The open questions in semi‐ structured interviews may encourage the participant to be honest in their answers, thus reducing social desirability bias as participants are able to justify their answers in their own words with opinions. - Semi‐structured interviews generate rich and interesting qualitative data. As with unstructured interviews, this allows the interviewer to clarify the meaning of the participants’ responses and gain further information if required. This provides a unique insight into explaining human behaviour. processing beforehand.
230
Q

What are correlational techniques?

A

Non‐experimental methods used to measure how strong the relationship is between two (or more) variables.

231
Q

State the three types of correlation

A
  • Positive - Negative - Zero
232
Q

What is meant by a positive correlation?

A

As one variable increases the other variable increases. For example – height and shoe size.

233
Q

What is meant by a negative correlation?

A

As one variable increases the other variable decreases. For example – the GCSE grades of students and the amount of time they are absent from school.

234
Q

What is meant by zero correlation?

A

Occurs when a correlational study finds no relationship between variables. For example – the amount of rainfall in Wales and the number of people who have read the Lord of the Rings trilogy.

235
Q

What is a correlation coefficient?

A

A correlation coefficient is used to measure the strength and nature (positive or negative) of the relationship between two co‐variables. The correlation coefficient number represents the strength of the relationship and can range between ‐1.0 and +1.0. The nearer the number is to +1 or ‐1 the stronger the correlation. A perfect positive correlation has a correlation coefficient of +1 and for a perfect negative correlation it is ‐1.

236
Q

What is a perfect positive correlation?

A

Has a correlation coefficient of +1.

237
Q

What is a perfect negative correlation?

A

Has a correlation coefficient of -1.

238
Q

What is a scattergram?

A

A scattergram (sometimes called a scattergraph) is a graph that shows the correlation between two sets of data (co‐variables) by plotting points to represent each pair of scores. It indicates the degree and direction of the correlation between the co‐variables, one of which is indicated on the X‐axis and the other on the Y‐axis.

239
Q

State the two ways to display correlational techniques.

A
  • Scattergram - Correlation Coefficient
240
Q

What are the positives to correlational techniques?

A
  • Ideal place to begin preliminary research investigations. - Can be used when a laboratory experiment would be unethical as the variables are not manipulated, merely correlated. - Secondary data can also be used in correlational studies which alleviates the concern over informed consent as the information is already in the public domain, e.g. government reports.
241
Q

Why are correlational studies good for preliminary research investigations?

A

Since they measure the strength of a relationship between two (or more) variables, this can provide valuable insight for future research.

242
Q

What can correlational studies be used instead of?

A

Can be used when a laboratory experiment would be unethical as the variables are not manipulated, merely correlated

243
Q

What are the limitations of correlational studies?

A
  • It is not possible to establish a cause and effect relationship through correlating co‐variables. - Correlations only identify linear relationships and not curvilinear. For example, the relationship between temperature and aggression is curvilinear, that is the relationship is positive to a point; however, at very high temperatures aggression declines.
244
Q

Explain the third variable problem for correlational studies

A

A researcher cannot conclude that one variable caused the other variable to increase/decrease as there could be other factors which influenced the relationship This is the third variable problem.

245
Q

How do semi-structured interviews increase validity?

A

The open questions in semi‐ structured interviews may encourage the participant to be honest in their answers, thus reducing social desirability bias as participants are able to justify their answers in their own words with opinions.

246
Q

What are the limitations of semi-structured interviews?

A
  • Analysis of the qualitative data can be more difficult, time consuming and expensive to conduct compared to quantitative data which is easier to statistically analyse without undergoing further processing beforehand. - The interviewer still retains control over the semi‐structured interview schedule compared to an unstructured interview, which can result in investigator effects which can affect the behaviour of the participants negatively.
247
Q

What are the limitations of unstructured interviews?

A
  • More time consuming and costly, as this type of interview requires a trained psychologist to administer them. - Statistical analysis can be challenging, as the data collected is qualitative, making it more difficult to identify patterns and trends without undergoing a content analysis first.
248
Q

What are the weaknesses of a structured interview?

A
  • By running several interviews with the same schedule investigator effects may play a role. The interviewer may, unconsciously, bias any responses given to the questions they ask by their tone of voice, intonations, body language and so on. - Investigator effects can also occur between researchers where there is more than one researcher conducting the interviews.
249
Q

What makes quantitive data analysis good?

A

Direct comparisons can be made between groups of individuals. This means the researcher can look for patterns and trends in the data that can lead to further research being conducted.

250
Q

What is the purpose of a case study?

A

To provide a detailed analysis of an individual, establishment or real‐life event.

251
Q

What methods do case studies use to collect data?

A
  • Experimental - Non-experimental
252
Q

When are case studies used?

A

When there is a rare behaviour being investigated which does not arise often enough to warrant a larger study being conducted. A case study allows data to be collected and analysed on something that psychologists have very little understanding of, and can therefore be the starting point for further, more in‐depth research.

253
Q

Give examples of famous case studies in psychology

A
  • HM - Phineas Gage - Little Albert - Little Hans.
254
Q

What are the limitations of case studies?

A
  • Methodological issues - By only studying one individual, an isolated event or a small group of people it is very difficult to generalise any findings to the wider population since results are likely to be so unique. - This creates issues with external validity as psychologists are unable to conclude with confidence that anyone beyond the ‘case’ will behave in the same way under similar circumstances, thus lowering population validity. - Weakness - Qualitative methods are used, is that the researcher’s own subjectivity may pose a problem. - Research bias and subjectivity can interfere with the validity of the findings/conclusions.
255
Q

What was the problem with the little hans experiment?

A

Freud developed an entire theory based around what he observed. There was no scientific or experimental evidence to support his suggestions from his case study. This means that a major problem with his research is that we cannot be sure that he objectively reported his findings.

256
Q

What are the strengths of case studies?

A
  • It offers the opportunity to unveil rich, detailed information about a situation. These unique insights can often be overlooked in situations where there is only the manipulation of one variable in order to measure its effect on another. - Can be used in circumstances which would not be ethical to examine experimentally. For example, the case study of Genie (Rymer, 1993) allowed researchers to understand the long‐term effects of failure to form an attachment which they could not do with a human participant unless it naturally occurred.
257
Q

What did the case study of Genie do?

A

(Rymer, 1993) Allowed researchers to understand the long‐term effects of failure to form an attachment which they could not do with a human participant unless it naturally occurred.

258
Q

How do you write aims for investigations?

A

There is always a research questions that they are trying to answer.

259
Q

What makes a study non-experimental?

A

If there is no independent or dependant variables

260
Q

Define - Independent variables

A

The variable that the researcher manipulates and which is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable (DV).

261
Q

Define - Dependent Variables

A

The variable that the research measures. The variable that is affected by changes in the independent variable (IV).

262
Q

Define - Hypothesis

A

a clear and precise prediction about the difference or relationship between the variables in the study.

263
Q

Define - Operationalisation

A

A term used to describe how a variable is clearly defined by the researcher. The term operationalisation can be applied to independent variables (IV), dependent variables (DV) or co‐variables (in a correlational design).

264
Q

What is another name for a directional hypothesis?

A

One-tailed

265
Q

What is another name for a non-directional hypothesis?

A

Two-tailed

266
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

Small‐scale prototypes of a study that are carried out in advance of the full research to find out if there are any problems

267
Q

What problems may a pilot study expose?

A
  • Experimental designs - do participants have enough time to complete the tasks? - Instructions for participants - are the instructions clear? - Measuring instruments - Including the behaviour categories in observational research and questions when using questionnaires. Allowing for categories and questions to be checked and modified where necessary.
268
Q

What do pilot studies ensure?

A

Ensure time, effort and money are not wasted on a flawed methodology.

269
Q

What is an important aspect for pilot stud?

A

study uses a sample that (although smaller) is representative of the target population that will be used in the main research.

270
Q

Define - extraneous variables

A

Any variable other than the IV that might affect the DV and thus affect the results.

271
Q

State the two types of extraneous variables

A
  • Situational - Participant
272
Q

What is a situational variable?

A

variables connected with the research situation. For example, the temperature, time of day, lighting, materials, etc.

273
Q

How can you control situational variables?

A

They are controlled though standardisation, ensuring that the only thing which differs between the two groups is the IV.For example, making sure that the temperature is the same for both groups, the time of day is the same, etc.

274
Q

What are participant variables?

A

Variables connected with the research participants. For example, age, intelligence, gender, etc.

275
Q

How can you control participant variables?

A

They are controlled through the experimental design, such as matched pairs design, or by randomly allocating participants to conditions, which helps to reduce bias.

276
Q

What is random allocation?

A

Random allocation of participants to their groups, for example in an independent measures design, is an extremely important process in psychological research.

277
Q

What does random allocation do?

A

Random allocation greatly decreases the possibility that participant variables in the form of individual differences, such as mathematical ability, will adversely affect the results.

278
Q

What does counterbalancing combat?

A

Problems of order effects with the repeated measures design

279
Q

What is counterbalancing?

A

The sample is split in half with one half completing the two conditions in one order and the other half completing the conditions in the reverse order. Any order effects should be balanced out by the opposing half of participants.

280
Q

What is randomisation?

A

This is when trials are presented in a random order to avoid any bias that the order of the trials might present.

281
Q

What is standardisation?

A

This is the process in which all situational variables of a procedure used in research are kept identical, so that methods are sensitive to any change in performance. Under these circumstances changes in data can be attributed to the IV. In addition, it is far more likely that results will be replicated on subsequent occasions when research is standardised.

282
Q

State the ways you can control extraneous variable

A
  • Random allocation - Counterbalancing - Randomisation - Standardisation
283
Q

Give two examples of confounding varibles

A
  • Demand characteristics - Investigator effects
284
Q

What do demand characteristics occur?

A

Occur when the participants try to make sense of the research and change their behaviour accordingly to support what they believe are the aims of the investigation.

285
Q

Why are demand characteristics a problem?

A

participants act in a way to support the hypothesis rather than displaying natural behaviour, making the results lack validity.

286
Q

What is the screw-you effect?

A

The participant deliberately trying to disrupt the results in a study.

287
Q

How can you control demand characteristics?

A

by not allowing the participants to guess the aim of the research or the identity of the IV which can be achieved by using a single‐blind experimental technique. A measure of deception has been used so that the participants cannot easily guess the aim. An example of this is in medical tests when comparing the effects of a therapeutic drug with a placebo, where only the researcher knows which is which.

288
Q

What are investigator effects?

A

Where a researcher (consciously or unconsciously) acts in a way to support their prediction.

289
Q

When can investigator effects be a problem?

A

When observing events that can be interpreted in more than one way. For example, one researcher might interpret children fighting as an act of violence, while another might observe this as rough and tumble play.

290
Q

What are BPS’s six main ethical guidelines?

A
  • Deception - The right to withdraw - Informed consent - Privacy and confidentially - Protection from harm
291
Q

What is deception?

A

When information is deliberately withheld from participants or they are knowingly misled.

292
Q

Why is deception unethical?

A

It prevents participants from giving fully informed consent which means that they might be taking part in research that goes against their views or beliefs.

293
Q

How can you deal with the issue of deception ?

A

At the end of the study the participants should be fully debriefed and told the true aim and nature of the research. At this point the participant should be given the right to withdraw the publication of their results. The contact details of the experimenter should be given if participants have any further questions or queries.

294
Q

What is the right to withdraw?

A

Participants have the right to withdraw (remove themselves or their data from the study) at any stage. This includes after the research has been conducted, in which case the researcher must destroy any data or information collected.

295
Q

Why is the right to withdraw an ethical issue?

A

Participants who are not given the right to withdraw may feel unnecessary or undue stress and are therefore not protected from harm.

296
Q

How can you deal with the issue of the right to withdraw?

A

At the end of the study the participants should be fully debriefed and told the true aim and nature of the research. At this point the participant should be given the right to withdraw the publication of their results. The contact details of the experimenter should be given if participants have any further questions or queries.

297
Q

What is informed consent?

A

When someone consents to participate in research, their consent must be fully informed which means the aims of the research should be made clear before they agree to participate.

298
Q

Why is the right to withdraw an ethical issue?

A

Lack of informed consent may mean that the participant is taking part in research that goes against their wishes or beliefs. It is possible that the participant may have felt obliged to take part or even coerced into it, especially if they are not fully informed.

299
Q

How can you deal with the issue of informed consent?

A

Presumptive consent: - Involves taking a random sample of the population and introducing them to the research, including any deception which may result. If they agree to take part in the research it can be presumed that other future participants would do the same so the consent is generalised. Prior general consent: - Involves participants agreeing to take part beforehand in numerous psychological investigations, which may or may not involve deception. This, in effect, means that they will have given consent for being deceived. Retrospective consent: - Involves participants giving consent for their participation after already taking part, for instance, if they were not aware that they were the subject of an investigation. Children as participants: involves gaining the consent of the parent(s) in writing for children under the age of 16 to participate in any psychological research.

300
Q

What is involved in presumptive consent?

A

Taking a random sample of the population and introducing them to the research, including any deception which may result. If they agree to take part in the research it can be presumed that other future participants would do the same so the consent is generalised.

301
Q

What is involved in prior general consent?

A

Participants agreeing to take part beforehand in numerous psychological investigations, which may or may not involve deception. This, in effect, means that they will have given consent for being deceived.

302
Q

What is involved in retrospective consent?

A

Participants giving consent for their participation after already taking part, for instance, if they were not aware that they were the subject of an investigation.

303
Q

What is involved in ‘Children as participants?’

A

Gaining the consent of the parent(s) in writing for children under the age of 16 to participate in any psychological research.

304
Q

What is privacy ?

A

The right of individuals to decide how information about them will be communicated to others.

305
Q

Why is privacy an ethical issue?

A

A skilled researcher may obtain more information from a participant than they wish to give which could be an invasion of privacy and the participant may later feel ashamed or embarrassed.

306
Q

How can you combat the issue of privacy?

A

The participant should be provided with fully informed consent and the right to withdraw at any stage. Furthermore, the researcher should explain to participants the way(s) in which their information will be protected and kept confidential, e.g. no names will be published in the final report and any written information or video information will be destroyed.

307
Q

What is confidentiality ?

A

Where a participant’s personal information is protected by law under the Data Protection Act both during and after the experiment.

308
Q

Why is confidentiality an ethical issue?

A

A person’s details or data may be used by other parties against the participant’s wishes.

309
Q

How can you combat the issue of confidentiality?

A

Participants are provide with a fake name, number or initials to protect their identity and assure anonymity. They should not be identifiable by any person, institution or organisation.

310
Q

What is protection from harm?

A

Psychologists have the responsibility to protect their participants from physical or psychological harm, including stress. The risk of harm must be no greater than that which they are exposed to in everyday life.

311
Q

Why is protection from harm an ethical issue?

A

Participants should leave the research in the same state as they entered it. If they are harmed, they may suffer from long‐term effects that could impact their lives in future.

312
Q

How can you combat the issue of protection from harm?

A

The researcher should remind participants of their right to withdraw throughout and after the research. The researcher should terminate the experiment if the level of psychological or physical harm is higher than expected. Participants should be debriefed at the end of the experiment and in some instances they may be referred to counselling.

313
Q

What is peer review?

A

An independent assessment process that takes place before a research study is published and is undertaken by other experts in the same field of psychology. All psychologists must be prepared for their work to be scrutinised in this way which is conducted anonymously.

314
Q

State the aims of the peer review process

A
  • To provide recommendations about whether the research should be published in the public domain or not, or whether it needs revision. - To check the validity of the research to ensure it is of a high quality. - To assess the appropriateness of the procedure and methodology. - To judge the significance of the research in the wider context of human behaviour. - To assess the work for originality and ensure that other relevant research is sufficiently detailed. - To inform allocation of future research funding to worthy investigative processes.
315
Q

What are limitations of the peer review process?

A
  • Since the peer reviewers are often anonymous in their reporting on the academic research, there is a possibility that they will use this fact as a means to criticise rivals in their field of psychology. There tends to be limited funding for new research so the element of competition could bread jealousy amongst researchers. - As a result, inaccurate or unfair criticism may be received following the peer review process which is not a valid reflection of the quality of the research. - It is sometimes difficult to find a suitable peer. This is especially true when conducting psychological research on a new or ground‐breaking topic. So research which is not of high quality will be passed as suitable for publication as the researcher did not fully comprehend the aims or content. - Results may be published which preserves the status quo by supporting existing theories more readily than more unconventional research might, resulting in a positive publication bias.
316
Q

What are limitations of the peer review process?

A
  • Since the peer reviewers are often anonymous in their reporting on the academic research, there is a possibility that they will use this fact as a means to criticise rivals in their field of psychology. There tends to be limited funding for new research so the element of competition could bread jealousy amongst researchers. - As a result, inaccurate or unfair criticism may be received following the peer review process which is not a valid reflection of the quality of the research. - It is sometimes difficult to find a suitable peer. This is especially true when conducting psychological research on a new or ground‐breaking topic. So research which is not of high quality will be passed as suitable for publication as the researcher did not fully comprehend the aims or content. - Results may be published which preserves the status quo by supporting existing theories more readily than more unconventional research might, resulting in a positive publication bias.
317
Q

What can reviewing psychological knowledge in terms of economy do?

A

Economy can help portray a clearer picture of how people’s behaviour is affected, in positive or negative ways, in the real world.

318
Q

What implications for the economy are there using an example in economy? Topic - Psychopathology

A

Topic: Psychopathology Specification: The biological approach to treating OCD Research: Soomro et al. (2008) conducted a review of research examining the effectiveness of SSRIs and found that they were significantly more effective than placebos in the treatment of OCD, across 17 different trials, which supports the use of biological treatments if OCD. The development of effective treatments for mental health disorders, such as obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), will firstly restore quality of life for the sufferer. This will then impact on their ability to work, meaning less time off work due to ill health and/or less reliance on Government funded incapacity benefit. Likewise, the NHS will save money if treatments are successful as fewer incidents of relapse, requiring, medical attention, are likely to occur.

319
Q

What implications for the economy are there using an example in economy? Topic - Memory

A

Topic: Memory Specification: Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. Research: Fisher et al. (1989) examined the effectiveness of the cognitive interview in real police interviews. Sixteen experienced detectives recorded a selection of their interviews, using a standard interviewing technique. The detectives were then divided into two groups.One group was trained to use the cognitive interview, while the other group (control) continued using the standard interview. After training, their subsequent interviews were recorded and analysed. The trained detectives elicited 46% more information after their cognitive interview training, in comparison to the control group. Where it was possible to confirm the information, over 90% of it was found to be accurate. The development of the cognitive interview has been successful in improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony recall. This means that there is a greater chance of the police prosecuting the right criminal from the offset. These techniques can reduce wasted money on wrongful arrests, questioning and court hearings, saving the criminal justice system money.

320
Q

What implications for the economy are there using an example in economy? Topic - Attachment

A

Topic: Attachment Specification: Role of the father Research: Belsky et al (2009) found that males who reported higher levels of marital intimacy also displayed a secure father infant attachment, which suggests that males can form secure attachments with their children, although the strength of the attachment depends on the father and mother relationship. Research shows that both mothers and fathers are equally capable of childrearing to enable healthy developmental outcomes for the infants. This allows mothers to return to work, free of guilt, and contribute to the economy through the work force. Modern parenting styles can, therefore, maximise the annual household income enabling both parents to contribute most effectively to the economy.

321
Q

What is quantitive data?

A

Numerical data that can be statistically analysed and converted easily into a graphical format. Experiments, structured observations, correlations and closed/rating‐scale questions from questionnaires all produce quantitative data.

322
Q

What are the strengths of quantitive data?

A
  • It is easy to analyse statistically. When large amounts of numerical data are generated it is relatively easy to conduct descriptive statistics or inferential tests of significance which allow for comparisons and trends to be identified between groups. Since established mathematical procedures are in place for this type of analysis it makes quantitative data more objective.
323
Q

What are the limitations with quantitive data?

A
  • Lack of representativeness. Since this type of data is often generated from closed questions, the responses gained are narrow in their scope towards explaining complex human behaviour. This means that, in comparison to qualitative data, the numerical findings can often lack meaning and context. As such, it may not be a true representation of real life and thus lacks validity.
324
Q

What is qualitative data?

A

A non‐numerical, language based data expressed in words which is collected through semi‐structured or unstructured interviews and open questions in a questionnaire. It allows researchers to develop an insight into the unique nature of human experiences, opinions and feelings.

325
Q

What are the strengths to qualitative data?

A

The rich detail obtained by the researcher. Since participants can develop their responses freely this provides the investigator with meaningful insights into the human condition. Because of this, the external validity of findings is enhanced as they are more likely to represent an accurate real‐world view.

326
Q

What are the limitations of qualitative data?

A

It can be subjective. Due to the rich, and often lengthy, detail of participants’ responses, interpretations of this type of data can often rely on the opinions and judgements of the researcher. This means that any preconceptions that the researcher holds may act to bias any conclusions drawn.

327
Q

What is primary data?

A

Refers to data that has been collected for a specific reason and reported by the original researcher. It is data that the participant reports directly to the researcher (often via an interview /questionnaire) or is witnessed first‐hand (via an observation/experiment). Primary data is sometimes referred to as field research.

328
Q

What are the strengths of primary data?

A

Authenticity. Collected with the sole purpose of being for a specific investigation. Since the data collection is designed to suit the aims of the research, this enables the researcher to exert a high level of control. This is advantageous as there is a greater probability that the data generated will fit the aims of the investigation, reducing any wasted time on behalf of the researcher and ensuring that the information prepared for analysis is relevant.

329
Q

What are the limitations of gathering primary data?

A

Designing and carrying out a psychological study can take a long period of time and considerable effort. This means that expenses can accrue due to the time investment needed on behalf of the researchers in addition to any equipment that needs to be purchased. Therefore, in comparison to primary data, secondary data which already exists can save the researcher time, effort and money.

330
Q

What is secondary data?

A

Information that was collected by other researchers for a purpose other than the investigation in which it is currently being used. In other words, it is data which already exists. Examples include Government reports like the census or statistics about mental health from the NHS. It is sometimes referred to as desk research because the significance of the data is already known.

331
Q

What are the strengths of secondary data?

A

Since the information already exists in the public domain, it means that it is much less time consuming and expensive to collect. This means that researchers can find the information they desire with very little effort. This makes the collection and use of secondary data much easier when compared with primary data.

332
Q

What are the limitations of using secondary data?

A

Involves concerns over accuracy. Given the information was not gathered to meet the specific aim of the research, it stands to reason that there may be significant variability in the quality of the data. This means that much of the data may be of little or no value to the researchers.

333
Q

What is meta analysis?

A

A process whereby investigators combine findings from multiple studies (secondary data) on a specific phenomenon to make an overall analysis of trends and patterns arising across research.

334
Q

What does meta analysis include?

A

This can include a qualitative review of previous research or a statistical, quantitative analysis to test for significance of effect size.

335
Q

What are advantages of meta-analysis?

A

The results are combined from many studies, rather than just one, the conclusions drawn will be based on a larger sample which provides greater confidence for generalisation. This, therefore, serves to increase the validity of the patterns and trends identified.

336
Q

What are the limitations of meta-analysis?

A

Issues of bias. Since the researcher is selecting data from research which has already taken place, they may choose to omit certain findings from their investigation. This could be particularly true if the previous findings showed no significant results or were inconclusive. As a result, the findings and conclusions from the meta analysis will be biased as they do not accurately represent all of the relevant data on the topic.

337
Q

What is descriptive statistics?

A

The quantitative summery.

338
Q

What do descriptive statistics allow researchers to do?

A

Researchers to view the data as a whole. It also helps the reader to get an understanding of the data and saves them from needing to navigate through lots of results to get a basic understanding of the data.

339
Q

What do descriptive statistics typically include?

A

A measure of central tendency and a measure of dispersion (which will have been selected based on the type of data collected), and can also include percentages.

340
Q

What do the measures of central tendency tell us?

A

About the central, most typical, value in a data set and are calculated in different ways.

341
Q

What are the types of central tendency’s?

A
  • Mean - Median - Mode
342
Q

What are the types of dispersion?

A
  • Range - Standard deviation
343
Q

Define - Mean

A

Calculated by adding up all the scores in the data set and then dividing by the number of scores.

344
Q

What are the strengths of a mean?

A

Most representative of all the measures of central tendency because it is comprised of the whole data set.

345
Q

What hat are limitations of a mean?

A

Most sensitive measure as outliers (extreme scores) can distort the mean. Can only be used with ordinal and interval data.

346
Q

Define - Median

A

Calculated by putting all scores in rank order from smallest to largest then selecting the middle number from the data set.

347
Q

What is the strength of a median?

A

Not distorted by extreme scores.

348
Q

What is the weakness of a median?

A

Does not reflect all scores in the data set.

349
Q

Define - Mode

A

Calculated by identifying the most frequently occurring score within the data set.

350
Q

What is the strength of a mode?

A

Not distorted by extreme scores. The only method which can be used with nominal data.

351
Q

What is a limitation of a mode?

A

There can be more than one mode so it is not always a useful measure of central tendency.

352
Q

What are measures of dispersion?

A

Descriptive statistics that define the spread of data around a central value (mean or median). There are two measures of dispersion: range and standard deviation (SD).

353
Q

What are the strengths of a range?

A

Easy to calculate mathematically without use of a calculator.

354
Q

What are the limitations of a range?

A

Does not indicate the distribution pattern across the whole data set.

355
Q

What are the strengths of a standard deviation?

A

Is a precise measurement of dispersion because all values in the data set are included in the calculation.

356
Q

What are limitations of a standard deviation?

A

Extreme values can distort the measurement.

357
Q

How can you calculate a percentage?

A

Number of participants who improved / Total number of participants x100

358
Q

State the ways to present quantitative data

A
  • Tables - Scattergrams - Bar Charts - Histograms
359
Q

What does normal distributed data produce?

A

Produces a symmetrical bell shaped curve when plotted, indicating that most scores are close to the mean, with a progressively fewer scores being located at the extremes of either tail of the distribution. In this instance, the median and mode also occupy the same centre point of the curve as the mean does.

360
Q

What is the term of a large proportion of scores falling below the mean?

A

Positively skewed

361
Q

What is the term of a large proportion of scores falling below the mean after the mean?

A

Negatively skewed

362
Q

What is the same between positively and negatively skewed distribution?

A

In both instances, the mode remains at the highest point on the graph, since it is not affected by extreme scores.

363
Q

When is the sign test used?

A

Used when looking for a difference between paired data, i.e. repeated measures design (or matched pairs – counted as one person tested on two occasions) which generates nominal data.

364
Q

Explain the way to do a sign test

A
  1. Is the hypothesis directional or non-directional? 2. Work out the sign (record each pair of data with + or -depending on the difference in positive and negative) If no difference then discount. 3. Calculate the value of S -(add up the total number of + and - and select the smallest value) 4. Calculate the value of N - (Number of scores - any nil scores) 5. Find the critical value - 0.05 level of significance. 6. Determine whether the results are significant or not - (typically, the p ≤ 0.05 probability level is used unless otherwise stated). For the sign test, the calculated value [2] must be equal to or less than the critical value [1] for the result to be significant. Therefore, these results are not significant as the calculated value of S is 2 which is higher than the critical value of S which is 1. 7. Reporting the conclusions of the sign test - By stating wether it is significant or not.

AS level Psychology (8 decks)

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