7. Research Methods Flashcards

Question

What are three ethical issues when conducting research?

Answer 1

- people under 16 - obtain informed content - debrief after telling any deception and allowing withdrawal of data

Answer 2

- Whether the IV produced the change in the DV - Whether the researcher is really testing what she of he intended to test - Whether the study possessed (or lacked) mundane realism.

Answer 3

- ecological - population - historical

Answer 4

A statement of what the researcher believes to be true.

Answer 5

An individual in a study who is not a real participant and has been instructed how to behave by the investigators

Answer 6

States the direction of the predicted difference between two conditions or two groups of participants

Answer 7

Predicts simply that there is a difference between two conditions or two groups of participants, without stating the direction if the difference

Answer 8

A small-scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design, with the view of making improvements.

Answer 9

When past research (theory or a study) suggests that the findings will go a certain direction as it makes sense to frame the hypothesis in the direction indicated.

Answer 10

When there is no past research or past research is contradictory. More appropriate if exploring a new area where informed expectations about how people might behave have yet to be established through research.

Answer 11

In order to find out if certain aspects of the design do or don't work. These use a few typical participants and sabe investing a large amount of time and money into a full scale experiment.

Answer 12

An experimental technique used to overcome order effects when using a repeated measures design. Counterbalancing ensures that each condition is tested first or second in equal amounts.

Answer 13

A set of procedures used to control the influence of factors such as participant variables in an experiment.

Answer 14

When participants are allocated to two (or more) groups representing different levels of the IV. Allocation is usually random techniques.

Answer 15

Pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables such as age and IQ. One member of each pair is allocated to one of the conditions under test and the second person is allocated to the other condition.

Answer 16

In a repeated measures design, an extraneous variable arising from the order in which conditions are presented eg. a practice effect or fatigue effect.

Answer 17

Allocating participants to experimental groups or conditions using random techniques.

Answer 18

Each participant takes part in every condition under the test ie. each level of the IV.

Answer 19

A cue that makes participants unconsciously aware of the aims of the study or helps participants work out what the researcher expects to find

Answer 20

AKA investigator / experimenter bias Anything that an investigator does that has an effect on a participants performance in a study other than what was intended. This includes direct effects and indirect effects. Investigator effects may act as a confounding or extraneous variable.

Answer 21

As a consequence of the investigator interacting with the participants.

Answer 22

As a consequence of the investigator designing the study

Answer 23

A systematic distortion

Answer 24

Applying the findings of a particular study to the population

Answer 25

A sample of participants produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study

Answer 26

- Opportunity - Random - Stratified - Systematic - volunteer

Answer 27

The group of people that the researcher is interested in. The group of people about whom generalisations can be selected.

Answer 28

A sample of participants produced by using a random technique such that every members of the target population being tested has an equal chance of being selected.

Answer 29

A sample of participants produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the population. Participants are then selected randomly from the subgroups / levels.

Answer 30

The method of participants, such as random, opportunity and volunteer sampling, or to sample behaviours in an observation such as an event or time sampling

Answer 31

A sample obtained by selecting every nth person. This can be a random sample if the first person is selected using a random method; you then select every nth person after that.

Answer 32

A form of sampling bias (distortion) because volenteer participants have special characteristics, such as usually being more highly motivated than randomly selected participants.

Answer 33

A sample of participants that relies solely on volunteers to make up the sample. Also called a self-selected sample.

Answer 34

Self-selected sample

Answer 35

- You need more participants than a repeated measures design in order to end up with the same amount of data. - One of the tests may be more difficult than the other so that is why the same participants do better in one condition - No control of participants variables. Which could act as a confounding variable.

Answer 36

- participants are unlikely to guess the aims of the experiment because they only take part in one group. therefore they are less likely to show demand characteristics so the results are more likely to be valid - There would be no order effects because each participant only does one condition - It doesn't matter if one test is more difficult than the other because different participants take part in the different groups. - Because there are different participants in each of the conditions, they can be tested at the same time, saving time and effort.

Answer 37

- The order of the conditions may affect performance (an order effect) - As participants do all the conditions, they may guess the aim of the experiment, which may affect their behaviour. - One of the tests may be more difficult than the other so that is why the same participants do better in one condition - A gap may be needed between conditions to counter the effects of boredom or fatigue. Each condition may also need different materials

Answer 38

- Controls participants variables because the same participants are in all conditions - You only need half the participants as an independent group and match pairs design.

Answer 39

- Very time consuming and difficult to match participants on key variables. The researcher probably has to start with a large group of participants to ensure that they can obtain matched pairs on key variables. - It is not possible to control all participants variables because you can only match on variables known to be relevant, but it could be that others are important

Answer 40

- controls some important variables (ones that the researcher can think of before the experiment)

Answer 41

Counterbalancing - ABBA to deal with order effects - avoiding participants guessing the aims of a study, a cover story can be presented about the purpose of the test.

Answer 42

Randomly allocate participants to conditions which (theoretically) distribute participant variables evenly.

Answer 43

- Restricting the number of variables to match on to make it easier and quicker. - Conduct a pilot study to consider key variables that might be important when matching

Answer 44

Ensures that each condition in a repeated measures design is tested first or second in equal amounts, if participants do the same memory test in the morning then in the afternoon we might expect they would get better as they have practiced - this is called an order effect. To combat you should have two conditions and so AB BA or ABBA to get an average over all.

Answer 45

AB BA - do A then B or B then A ABBA - Do A then B then B then A

Answer 46

- Single blind design - Double blind design - Experimental realism

Answer 47

The participant is not aware of the research aims and/pr of which condition of the experiment they are receiving. This prevents the participant seeking cues about the aims and reacting to them

Answer 48

Both the participant and the person conducting the experiment are 'blind' to the aims and/or the hypothesis. therefore the person conducting the investigation is less likely to produce cues about what he/she expects.

Answer 49

If the researcher makes an experimental task sufficiently engaging the participant pays attention to the task and not the fact that they are being observed.

Answer 50

Any characteristic of individual participants. They only occur in independent group designs as they are controlled in the other designs. Eg. Age, Intelligence, motivation, experience and gender.

Answer 51

Features of a research situation that may influence participants' behaviour and thus act as EV or CVs. They are only CV if they vary systematically with the IV.

Answer 52

- Easiest method - as use the first suitable participants - Less time consuming

Answer 53

- Inevitably biased as sampling is drawn from a small part of the population

Answer 54

- Unbiased as all members of the target population have an equal chance of selection

Answer 55

- Need a list of all the members of the population and then contact all of those selected which is very time consuming

Answer 56

- Likely to be more representative and there is a proportional and randomly selected representation of the subgroups.

Answer 57

- Very time consuming to identify subgroups, randomly select then contact - Also some subgroups may be less inclined to help than others.

Answer 58

- Unbiased as participants are selected using an objective system.

Answer 59

- Not truly unbiased/random unless you select a number using a random method and start with this person then every nth person - Also the list may be in an order so wouldn't give a generalised response

Answer 60

- Gives access to a variety of participants which may make the sample more representative and less biased.

Answer 61

- sample is biased in other ways because participants are likely to be more highly motivated and/or with extra time on their hands. They might be more highly motivated to be helpful, or more broke and needing the money offered for participation. This could result in volunteer bias

Answer 62

1. The lottery method 2. Random number table 3. Random number generators

Answer 63

Draw numbers 'out of a hat'

Answer 64

1. Obtain a list of all the people in the population. This may simply be the names of all the people in your school 2. Put the names in a lottery barrel or hat. 3. select the number of names required

Answer 65

A printed table of numbers.

Answer 66

1. Every member of the population is given a number 2. The starting position in the table is determined blindly by placing your finger anywhere. 3. If your population is less than 100 you only need to look at two digit numbers.

Answer 67

A calculator with the function of generating a random number.

Answer 68

1. Number every member of the population 2. Using for example excel type = RAND(100) to get a random number 1-100.

Answer 69

Conflicts about what is acceptable. Everyone conducting an experiment is expected to be aware of their responsibility to ensure participants are treated in an ethically appropriate way.

Answer 70

British Psychological Society It outlines the ethical standards that must be abided by.

Answer 71

1. Respect for the dignity and worth of all persons. Including standards of privacy and confidentiality and informed consent. 2. Competence - high standards should be maintained in the psychologists professional work. 3. Responsibility - They have a responsibility to their client, the general public and to the science. This includes protection from physical or psychological harm as well as a debriefing. 4. Integrity - Honest and accurate including reporting the findings and any limitations and bringing incidents of misconduct to the attention of the BPS.

Answer 72

1. Respect 2.Competence 3. Responsibility 4.Integrity

Answer 73

Revealing the true aims of the study or at least telling participants what is actually going to happen. However this may cause participants to guess the aim of the study and so they may not always want to reveal the true aims or even the full details of what is going to happen.

Answer 74

The believe they should be told what they will be required to do in the study so that they can make an informed decision about whether they wish to participate. They say it is a basic human right. This also means they can predict the risks or benefits of taking part in any study.

Answer 75

It may be necessary to hide the true aims otherwise participants may alter their behaviour and the study could be meaningless. A distinction should be made between withholding some details and providing false information.

Answer 76

It is unethical as they should not deceive anyone without good reason. They may be able to give consent without all the details and so may be caused harm. They may also lead to the belief that psychologists are untrustworthy.

Answer 77

1985 Argued deception was morally wrong on the basis of three generally accepted ethical rules in western society: - The right to informed consent - The obligation of researchers to protect the welfare of the participant - The responsibility of researchers to be trustworthy

Answer 78

Concerns the communication of personal information from one person to another, and the trust that the information will be protected.

Answer 79

A participant is not told the true aims of a study, eg. what participation will involve, and thus cannot give truly informed consent.

Answer 80

Participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order that they can make an informed decision about whether to participate.

Answer 81

A person's right to control the flow of information about themselves.

Answer 82

During a research study, participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects, such as physical injury, lowered self-esteem or embarrassment

Answer 83

Participants can stop participants in a study if they are uncomfortable in any way. This is especially important in cases where it not possible to give fully informed consent. Participants should also have the right to refuse permission for the researcher to use any data they produced.

Answer 84

if participants do leave during the study this will bias the results because the participants who have stayed are likely to be more obedient, or they might be more hardy - leading to a biased sample.

Answer 85

It is important as if they feel uncomfortable or distressed they should be able to withdraw. This is especially important if they have been deceived and or if it is not the way it had been previously believed. This right is often compromised by payment and so it may become harder to withdraw.

Answer 86

Some of the more important questions in psychology may involve a degree of distress to participants. It is also hard to predict the outcome of certain procedures and so the guarantee is hard.

Answer 87

Nothing should happen to them during a study that causes harm. There are many ways that physical or psychological harm can be caused and it is seen as acceptable if the risk of harm is no greater than a participant would be likely to experience in ordinary life and if the participant is in the same state after the experiment as before it t, unless they have been given their informed consent to be treated otherwise.

Answer 88

It is difficult to protect confidentiality as the researcher wishes to publish his findings. They may make a point of guaranteeing anonymity however it is sometimes easy to know who was involved in the study.

Answer 89

The data protection act makes confidentiality a legal right. It can only be acceptable for personal data to be recorded if the data are not made available in a form that identifies the participant.

Answer 90

This makes confidentiality a legal right. It can only be acceptable for personal data to be recorded if the data are not made available in a form that identifies the participant.

Answer 91

It may be difficult to avoid invasion of privacy when studying participants without their awareness for example a field experiment

Answer 92

People do not expect to be observed by others in certain situations eg. when the privacy of their own homes, while they might expect this when sitting on a park bench in public.

Answer 93

- Ethical guidelines (code of conduct) - Cost-benefit analysis - Ethics committees - Punishment

Answer 94

The BPS regularly update its ethical guidelines. The current version is the code of ethics and conduct (BPS 2009). The intention of such guidelines is to tell psychologists which behaviours are not acceptable and to give guidance on how to deal with ethical dilemmas

Answer 95

We can judge the costs against the benefits to make sure that the results we get with out-way any problems caused by doing the experiment.

Answer 96

- Participants point of view - (where we list distress and lost of time versus payment and feeling of contribution) - Society at large - value of improving peoples lives versus the possibility that individuals may be harmed - Group of which the individual belongs - When investigating cultural differences it may not cause harm to the individuals as finding may bias treatment of the individuals cultural group (for good or bad)

Answer 97

They must approve any study before it begins. It looks at all possible ethical issues raised in any research proposal and how the researcher aims to deal with them, weighing up the benefits of the research against the possible costs.

Answer 98

They may decide to bar the person from practicing as a psychologist. However it is not a legal matter and so they cannot be sent to jail.

Answer 99

The BPS code of ethics identifies ethical issues but also relates them to a conduct.

Answer 100

It says that a failure to make full disclosure prior to obtaining informed consent requires additional safeguards to protect the welfare and dignity of the participants.

Answer 101

- Research with children (under 16) - Or if they have impairments that limit understanding and or communication to the extend of not being able to give consent.

Answer 102

The central principle is the reaction of participants when deception is revealed; if this leads to discomfort, anger or objections from participants then the deception is inappropriate

Answer 103

If this leads to discomfort, anger or objections from participants

Answer 104

If harm, unusual discomfort or other negative consequences for the individuals future life might occur, the investigators must obtain the disinterested approval of independent advisors, inform the participants and obtain the real informed consent from each of them

Answer 105

- Inevitably rather general as the virtual impossibility of covering every conceivable situation that a researcher may encounter. - They also absolve the individual researcher of any responsibility because the researcher can simply say 'i followed the guidelines'

Answer 106

They present a series of hypothetical dilemmas and invite psychologists to discuss these.

Answer 107

It encourages debate, whereas the BPS and APA approach tends to close off discussions about what is right and wrong because the answers are provided.

Answer 108

- It is difficult to predict noth costs and benefits prior to conducting the study. - This difficulty continues after. - It is hard to quantify each eg. a persons distress cost.

Answer 109

1959 - It solves nothing as you simply exchange one set of dilemmas for another. - Said to legitimise unethical practices - Eg. suggesting deception and harm are acceptable in many situations provided the benefits are high enough

Answer 110

- Participants askes to formally indicate their agreement to participate. This should contain comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role - Or you can gain presumptive consent - They must also offer the right to withdraw

Answer 111

- The full information may invalidate the purpose of the study - It does not guarantee that participates really understand what they are getting themselves in for - Presumptive consent may just be what they think will be okay but this may be different when the participant actually experiences it

Answer 112

- The need for deception should be approved by an ethics committee, weighing up benefits against costs - The participants should be fully debriefed after the study. - This should give them an opportunity to discuss concerns and to withhold their data from the study - This is a form of retrospective informed consent.

Answer 113

- Cost-benefit decisions are flawed as they involve subjective judgements and some may not be apparent until after the study - Debriefing doesn't turn the clock back they may feel embarrassed or have a lowered self-esteem after the study

Answer 114

- Participants should be informed at the beginning of the study that they have the right to withdraw at any point of the study without giving a reason.

Answer 115

- Participants may feel they cant as it may spoil the study - In many studies the participants are paid of rewards in some way and so they may not be able to withdraw.

Answer 116

- Avoid any risks greater than experiences in everyday life - Stop the study if harm is suspected

Answer 117

Harm may not be apparent at the time of the study and only judged later with hindsight

Answer 118

Researchers should not record the names of any participants and should use numbers or false names.

Answer 119

Sometimes possible to work out who the participants are using information that has been provided. Therefore, confidentiality may not be possible

Answer 120

Do not study anyone without their informed consent unless it is in a public place and public behaviour

Answer 121

There is no universal agreement about what constitutes a public place

Answer 122

A systematic approach to estimating the negatives and positives of any research.

Answer 123

A post-research interview designed to inform participants of the true nature of the study and to restore them to the state they were in at the start of the study. It may also be used to gain useful feedback about the procedures in the study. Debriefing is not an ethical issue its a mean s of dealing with an ethical issue.

Answer 124

A set of principles designed to help professionals behave honestly and with integrity

Answer 125

A group of people within a research institution that must approve a study before it begins

Answer 126

A method of dealing with lack of informed consent or deception, by asking a group of people who are similar to the participants whether they would agree to take part in a study. If this group of people consents to the procedures in the proposed study it is presumed that the real participants would also have agreed

Answer 127

This makes it objective - independent of beliefs and opinions It should be based on data and not a theory. The best way to do this is to collect quantitative data and have strictly controlled variables. This makes it easy to replicate and also establishes a cause and effect

Answer 128

1. Ask a question - make an observation and ask why or how it happens. 2. Suggest an answer, or part of an answer, by forming a theory 3. Make a prediction or hypothesis - a specific testable statement 4. Carry out a test - to provide evidence that will support the hypothesis or help disprove it

Answer 129

1. Publish results in scientific journals. These contain scientific reports. This undergoes Peer Review. 2. Other scientists read the published theory and try to repeat it - This can make new predictions that can be tested by other new experiments 3. If all th experiments in the world provide evidence to back it up, the theory is thought to be fact. 4. If new evidence comes to light that conflicts the current evidence the theory is questioned all over again. This leads to more rounds of testing with the new evidence and so to see which theory prevails.

Answer 130

- A process used to ensure the integrity of published scientific work. Before, publication, scientific work is sent to experts in that field (peers) so they can assess the quality of the work. - This keeps scientists honest - It helps validate conclusions - mean published theories, data and conclusions are more trustworthy. But it can't guarantee conclusions are 100% right. - Sometimes mistakes are made and bad science is published. Peer review isn't perfect, but it's probably the best way for scientists to self-regulate their work, and to ensure reliable scientific work is published.

Answer 131

- This keeps scientists honest - It helps validate conclusions - mean published theories, data and conclusions are more trustworthy. But it can't guarantee conclusions are 100% right. - Sometimes mistakes are made and bad science is published. Peer review isn't perfect, but it's probably the best way for scientists to self-regulate their work, and to ensure reliable scientific work is published.

Answer 132

In this study a researcher watches or listens to participants engaging in whatever behaviour is being studied. The observations are recorded.

Answer 133

- Naturalistic - Controlled - Overt - Covert - Participant - Non-participant

Answer 134

Behaviour is studied in a natural situation where everything has been left as it is normally. It does not interfere in any way with what is happening.

Answer 135

Watching an infant school playing in their normal environment. This might be a nursery school if that is an environment that the infant is used to. Observing an animal in a zoo as the environment was normal to them.

Answer 136

Some variables in the environment are regulated by the researcher, reducing the naturalness of the environment and most importantly the natural naturalness of the behaviour being studied. Participants are likely to know they are being studied and the study may be conducted in a laboratory.

Answer 137

Allowing the researcher to investigate the effects of certain things on behaviour, eg. Bandura's study of social learning theory as various toys were present to see how the children would interact with these.

Answer 138

Bandura's study of social learning theory as various toys were present to see how the children would interact with these.

Answer 139

In both naturalistic and controlled observations the person being observed may be aware of the observations.

Answer 140

It is likely to have an effect on the naturalness of participants' behaviour, observers try to be as unobtrusive as possible. They may even use one-way mirrors so they can be hidden from view.

Answer 141

Participants do not have any knowledge of being observed, at least not before or during the study. They may be informed afterwards.

Answer 142

In most cases an observer is merely watching the behaviour of others and acts as a non-participant. The observer observes from a distance ad does not interact with the people being observed.

Answer 143

The observer is part of the group being observed. In both covert and overt observations the observer may be a participant unbeknown to the people observed.

Answer 144

A form of investigation in which behaviour is observed but under conditions where certain variables have been organised by the researcher.

Answer 145

Observing people without their knowledge. Knowing that behaviour is being observed is likely to alter a participant's behaviour.

Answer 146

The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour.

Answer 147

An observation carried out in an everyday setting, in which the investigator does not interfere in any way but merely observes the behaviour(s) in question.

Answer 148

The observer is separate from the people being observed.

Answer 149

Observers' expectations affect what they see and hear. This reduces the validity of the observations.

Answer 150

Observational studies where participants are aware that their behaviour is being studied.

Answer 151

Observations made by someone who is also participating in the activity being observed, which may affect their objectivity.

Answer 152

- What people say they do is often different from what they actually do, so observations give a different take on behaviour than other research methods. - Such studies are also able to capture spontaneous and unexpected behaviour. However, observer bias and it is difficult to be objective as peoples observations are easily distorted by their expectations. - They provide information about what people actually do buy they don't provide information about what people think or feel.

Answer 153

Using more than one observer may reduce the rick which would effect the validity of the observations.

Answer 154

- In naturalistic observations it gives a realistic picture of natural, spontaneous behaviour so is high in ecological validity - Little control of all the other things that are happening, which may mean that something unknown to the observer may account for the behaviour observed. - In a controlled observation an observer can focus on particular aspects of behaviour, but this control comes at the cost of the environment feeling unnatural and then participants' behaviour is also less natural as a consequence.

Answer 155

- In covert - Participants are unaware of being observed and thus their behaviour is more natural - In covert - There are important ethical issues related - It is acceptable to observe people in a public place as long as the behaviours being observed are not private ones.

Answer 156

It is acceptable to observe people in a public place as long as the behaviours being observed are not private ones.

Answer 157

- NP - likely to be more objective; they are not part of the group being observed - P - May provide special insights into behaviour from the 'inside' that may not otherwise be gained - P - more likely to be overt and thus have issues of participant awareness - P - In covert there are ethical issues.

Answer 158

Investigator effects and demand characteristics are less likely

Answer 159

Less ethical: lack of informed consent

Answer 160

More ethical: informed

Answer 161

Investigator effects and demand characteristics are more likely

Answer 162

In‐depth data is gathered due to close proximity

Answer 163

Investigator effects and demand characteristics are more likely

Answer 164

Investigator effects and demand characteristics are less likely

Answer 165

Researcher might miss behaviours of interest due to lack of proximity

Answer 166

Higher level of ecological validity

Answer 167

Issues with replication and ascertaining reliability

Answer 168

Can be replicated to check reliability

Answer 169

Lower levels of ecological validity

Answer 170

Higher levels of inter‐ observer reliability

Answer 171

Less rich data can lack internal validity as researchers miss important behaviours

Answer 172

Rich data leads to greater internal validity

Answer 173

Lower levels of inter‐ observer reliability

Answer 174

- Time sampling - Event sampling

Answer 175

This is where an observer records behaviour at prescribed intervals, e.g. every 10 seconds.

Answer 176

This is where an observer records the number of times that the target behaviour occurs, e.g. using a tally.

Answer 177

Time sampling methods allow for a better use of time since fewer observations are made.

Answer 178

Not every behaviour of relevance to the investigation will be counted if it occurs in between the time frames allocated.

Answer 179

Every behaviour of interest to the researcher, in theory, will be counted from the beginning through to the end of the observation.

Answer 180

There is the possibility that some behaviours could be missed if there is too much happening at the same time, resulting in some not being coded.

Answer 181

Questionnaires are a type of ‘self‐report’ technique, where participants provide information relating to their thoughts, feelings and behaviours. They can be designed in different ways, and can comprise of open questions, closed questions or a mixture of both.

Answer 182

- Open - Closed

Answer 183

Open questions allow participants to answer however they wish, and thus generate qualitative data since there is no fixed number of responses to select from. Responses to these types of questions provide rich and detailed data which can provide insight into the unique human condition.

Answer 184

- Qualitative - Quantitive

Answer 185

Qualitative

Answer 186

- Strength - less chance of researcher bias. This is especially true if the questionnaire is also anonymous, since the participant can answer the questions in their own words, without input from the researcher providing a set number of responses and less chance of the responses being influenced by the researcher’s expectations. - Limitations - Participants may answer in a socially desirable way, where they try to portray themselves in the best possible light to the researcher. This means that the open response may lack validity as it is not their natural response.

Answer 187

Closed questions restrict the participant to a predetermined set of responses and generate quantitative data. There are different types of closed questions, including: checklist, Likert response scale and ranking scale.

Answer 188

- Checklist - Likert response scale - Ranking scale.

Answer 189

Quantitative data

Answer 190

This is a type of question where participants tick the answer(s) that apply to them. For example: What is the highest academic qualification you hold?

Answer 191

This is a type of question where participants rate on a scale their views/opinions on a question. For example: Psychology is the most interesting A‐Level subject. (Circle the number that applies). 1 2 3 4 5

Answer 192

This is where participants place a list of items in their preferred order. For example: Rank the following activities according to how much time you spend on them each day. (1 = most time, 4 = least time).

Answer 193

- Advantage - Quantitative data collected. Making it easy to analyse the results statistically or in a graphical format. - Limitations - By sticking to a predetermined list of questions, the researcher is unable to pursue and explore responses that are of particular interest. - Limitation - Often produce a response bias. This can happen because the participant doesn’t take the time to read all the questions properly and, for example, selects ‘yes’ for each of their answers. This means that the data generated may lack internal validity.

Answer 194

- Keep the terminology simple and clear. - Keep it as short as possible. - Be sensitive; avoid personal questions. If you must, collect personal information at the end. - Do not use leading questions. - Do not use questions that make assumptions or sweeping statements. - Pilot and modify the questionnaire.

Answer 195

Interviews are another type of self‐report technique which predominantly take place on a face‐to‐face basis, although they can also happen over the telephone.

Answer 196

- Structured - Unstructured - Semi-structured

Answer 197

Responses are usually recorded, with the use of an interview schedule that the interviewer completes and/or audio or video recording, with the informed consent of the interviewee(s).

Answer 198

Structured interviews have the questions decided on in advance and they are asked in exactly the same order for each interviewee taking part. The interviewer uses an interview schedule and will often record the answers to each question by taking notes/ticking boxes on their schedule.

Answer 199

- Quantitative (numerical) data is easier to statistically analyse. Useful as direct comparisons can be made between groups of individuals so the researcher can look for patterns and trends in data. - The questions are standardised and asked in the same sequence every time to all participants, the interview is easily replicable to test for reliability.

Answer 200

- Tone of voice - Body language - Intonations

Answer 201

Unstructured interviews are conducted more like a conversation, with the interviewer only facilitating the discussion rather than asking set questions. Very little is decided in advance (only the topic and questions needed to identify the interviewee). Therefore, this type of interview typically produces a large amount of rich qualitative data. Answers will usually be audio or video recorded, as to write them all down as quickly as they were spoken would be impossible for the interviewer, and would also spoil the relaxed atmosphere of the unstructured interview.

Answer 202

Qualitative

Answer 203

- Can increase the validity of findings by significantly reducing the possibility of investigator effects. The open question schedule in unstructured interviews means that the investigator does not control the direction of the conversation to meet their own preconceived agenda. - Participants can justify their answers in their own words with opinions rather than trying to guess the aim of the study through any clues given. This is useful because it reduces the possibility of participants displaying demand characteristics in their interview responses. - Generate large quantities of rich and interesting qualitative data. This allows the interviewer to clarify the meaning and gain further information from the participant if required to full understand complex human behaviour.

Answer 204

Semi‐structured interviews comprise of mostly prepared questions that can be supplemented with additional questions as seen fit by the interviewer at the time. As with unstructured interviews, the interviewer can deviate from the original questions and consequently this type of interview also typically produces rich qualitative data.

Answer 205

- Increase the validity of findings. The open questions in semi‐ structured interviews may encourage the participant to be honest in their answers, thus reducing social desirability bias as participants are able to justify their answers in their own words with opinions. - Semi‐structured interviews generate rich and interesting qualitative data. As with unstructured interviews, this allows the interviewer to clarify the meaning of the participants’ responses and gain further information if required. This provides a unique insight into explaining human behaviour. processing beforehand.

Answer 206

Non‐experimental methods used to measure how strong the relationship is between two (or more) variables.

Answer 207

- Positive - Negative - Zero

Answer 208

As one variable increases the other variable increases. For example – height and shoe size.

Answer 209

As one variable increases the other variable decreases. For example – the GCSE grades of students and the amount of time they are absent from school.

Answer 210

Occurs when a correlational study finds no relationship between variables. For example – the amount of rainfall in Wales and the number of people who have read the Lord of the Rings trilogy.

Answer 211

A correlation coefficient is used to measure the strength and nature (positive or negative) of the relationship between two co‐variables. The correlation coefficient number represents the strength of the relationship and can range between ‐1.0 and +1.0. The nearer the number is to +1 or ‐1 the stronger the correlation. A perfect positive correlation has a correlation coefficient of +1 and for a perfect negative correlation it is ‐1.

Answer 212

Has a correlation coefficient of +1.

Answer 213

Has a correlation coefficient of -1.

Answer 214

A scattergram (sometimes called a scattergraph) is a graph that shows the correlation between two sets of data (co‐variables) by plotting points to represent each pair of scores. It indicates the degree and direction of the correlation between the co‐variables, one of which is indicated on the X‐axis and the other on the Y‐axis.

Answer 215

- Scattergram - Correlation Coefficient

Answer 216

- Ideal place to begin preliminary research investigations. - Can be used when a laboratory experiment would be unethical as the variables are not manipulated, merely correlated. - Secondary data can also be used in correlational studies which alleviates the concern over informed consent as the information is already in the public domain, e.g. government reports.

Answer 217

Since they measure the strength of a relationship between two (or more) variables, this can provide valuable insight for future research.

Answer 218

Can be used when a laboratory experiment would be unethical as the variables are not manipulated, merely correlated

Answer 219

- It is not possible to establish a cause and effect relationship through correlating co‐variables. - Correlations only identify linear relationships and not curvilinear. For example, the relationship between temperature and aggression is curvilinear, that is the relationship is positive to a point; however, at very high temperatures aggression declines.

Answer 220

A researcher cannot conclude that one variable caused the other variable to increase/decrease as there could be other factors which influenced the relationship This is the third variable problem.

Answer 221

The open questions in semi‐ structured interviews may encourage the participant to be honest in their answers, thus reducing social desirability bias as participants are able to justify their answers in their own words with opinions.

Answer 222

- Analysis of the qualitative data can be more difficult, time consuming and expensive to conduct compared to quantitative data which is easier to statistically analyse without undergoing further processing beforehand. - The interviewer still retains control over the semi‐structured interview schedule compared to an unstructured interview, which can result in investigator effects which can affect the behaviour of the participants negatively.

Answer 223

- More time consuming and costly, as this type of interview requires a trained psychologist to administer them. - Statistical analysis can be challenging, as the data collected is qualitative, making it more difficult to identify patterns and trends without undergoing a content analysis first.

Answer 224

- By running several interviews with the same schedule investigator effects may play a role. The interviewer may, unconsciously, bias any responses given to the questions they ask by their tone of voice, intonations, body language and so on. - Investigator effects can also occur between researchers where there is more than one researcher conducting the interviews.

Answer 225

Direct comparisons can be made between groups of individuals. This means the researcher can look for patterns and trends in the data that can lead to further research being conducted.

Answer 226

To provide a detailed analysis of an individual, establishment or real‐life event.

Answer 227

- Experimental - Non-experimental

Answer 228

When there is a rare behaviour being investigated which does not arise often enough to warrant a larger study being conducted. A case study allows data to be collected and analysed on something that psychologists have very little understanding of, and can therefore be the starting point for further, more in‐depth research.

Answer 229

- HM - Phineas Gage - Little Albert - Little Hans.

Answer 230

- Methodological issues - By only studying one individual, an isolated event or a small group of people it is very difficult to generalise any findings to the wider population since results are likely to be so unique. - This creates issues with external validity as psychologists are unable to conclude with confidence that anyone beyond the ‘case’ will behave in the same way under similar circumstances, thus lowering population validity. - Weakness - Qualitative methods are used, is that the researcher’s own subjectivity may pose a problem. - Research bias and subjectivity can interfere with the validity of the findings/conclusions.

Answer 231

Freud developed an entire theory based around what he observed. There was no scientific or experimental evidence to support his suggestions from his case study. This means that a major problem with his research is that we cannot be sure that he objectively reported his findings.

Answer 232

- It offers the opportunity to unveil rich, detailed information about a situation. These unique insights can often be overlooked in situations where there is only the manipulation of one variable in order to measure its effect on another. - Can be used in circumstances which would not be ethical to examine experimentally. For example, the case study of Genie (Rymer, 1993) allowed researchers to understand the long‐term effects of failure to form an attachment which they could not do with a human participant unless it naturally occurred.

Answer 233

(Rymer, 1993) Allowed researchers to understand the long‐term effects of failure to form an attachment which they could not do with a human participant unless it naturally occurred.

Answer 234

There is always a research questions that they are trying to answer.

Answer 235

If there is no independent or dependant variables

Answer 236

The variable that the researcher manipulates and which is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable (DV).

Answer 237

The variable that the research measures. The variable that is affected by changes in the independent variable (IV).

Answer 238

a clear and precise prediction about the difference or relationship between the variables in the study.

Answer 239

A term used to describe how a variable is clearly defined by the researcher. The term operationalisation can be applied to independent variables (IV), dependent variables (DV) or co‐variables (in a correlational design).

Answer 240

One-tailed

Answer 241

Two-tailed

Answer 242

Small‐scale prototypes of a study that are carried out in advance of the full research to find out if there are any problems

Answer 243

- Experimental designs - do participants have enough time to complete the tasks? - Instructions for participants - are the instructions clear? - Measuring instruments - Including the behaviour categories in observational research and questions when using questionnaires. Allowing for categories and questions to be checked and modified where necessary.

Answer 244

Ensure time, effort and money are not wasted on a flawed methodology.

Answer 245

study uses a sample that (although smaller) is representative of the target population that will be used in the main research.

Answer 246

Any variable other than the IV that might affect the DV and thus affect the results.

Answer 247

- Situational - Participant

Answer 248

variables connected with the research situation. For example, the temperature, time of day, lighting, materials, etc.

Answer 249

They are controlled though standardisation, ensuring that the only thing which differs between the two groups is the IV.For example, making sure that the temperature is the same for both groups, the time of day is the same, etc.

Answer 250

Variables connected with the research participants. For example, age, intelligence, gender, etc.

Answer 251

They are controlled through the experimental design, such as matched pairs design, or by randomly allocating participants to conditions, which helps to reduce bias.

Answer 252

Random allocation of participants to their groups, for example in an independent measures design, is an extremely important process in psychological research.

Answer 253

Random allocation greatly decreases the possibility that participant variables in the form of individual differences, such as mathematical ability, will adversely affect the results.

Answer 254

Problems of order effects with the repeated measures design

Answer 255

The sample is split in half with one half completing the two conditions in one order and the other half completing the conditions in the reverse order. Any order effects should be balanced out by the opposing half of participants.

Answer 256

This is when trials are presented in a random order to avoid any bias that the order of the trials might present.

Answer 257

This is the process in which all situational variables of a procedure used in research are kept identical, so that methods are sensitive to any change in performance. Under these circumstances changes in data can be attributed to the IV. In addition, it is far more likely that results will be replicated on subsequent occasions when research is standardised.

Answer 258

- Random allocation - Counterbalancing - Randomisation - Standardisation

Answer 259

- Demand characteristics - Investigator effects

Answer 260

Occur when the participants try to make sense of the research and change their behaviour accordingly to support what they believe are the aims of the investigation.

Answer 261

participants act in a way to support the hypothesis rather than displaying natural behaviour, making the results lack validity.

Answer 262

The participant deliberately trying to disrupt the results in a study.

Answer 263

by not allowing the participants to guess the aim of the research or the identity of the IV which can be achieved by using a single‐blind experimental technique. A measure of deception has been used so that the participants cannot easily guess the aim. An example of this is in medical tests when comparing the effects of a therapeutic drug with a placebo, where only the researcher knows which is which.

Answer 264

Where a researcher (consciously or unconsciously) acts in a way to support their prediction.

Answer 265

When observing events that can be interpreted in more than one way. For example, one researcher might interpret children fighting as an act of violence, while another might observe this as rough and tumble play.

Answer 266

- Deception - The right to withdraw - Informed consent - Privacy and confidentially - Protection from harm

Answer 267

When information is deliberately withheld from participants or they are knowingly misled.

Answer 268

It prevents participants from giving fully informed consent which means that they might be taking part in research that goes against their views or beliefs.

Answer 269

At the end of the study the participants should be fully debriefed and told the true aim and nature of the research. At this point the participant should be given the right to withdraw the publication of their results. The contact details of the experimenter should be given if participants have any further questions or queries.

Answer 270

Participants have the right to withdraw (remove themselves or their data from the study) at any stage. This includes after the research has been conducted, in which case the researcher must destroy any data or information collected.

Answer 271

Participants who are not given the right to withdraw may feel unnecessary or undue stress and are therefore not protected from harm.

Answer 272

At the end of the study the participants should be fully debriefed and told the true aim and nature of the research. At this point the participant should be given the right to withdraw the publication of their results. The contact details of the experimenter should be given if participants have any further questions or queries.

Answer 273

When someone consents to participate in research, their consent must be fully informed which means the aims of the research should be made clear before they agree to participate.

Answer 274

Lack of informed consent may mean that the participant is taking part in research that goes against their wishes or beliefs. It is possible that the participant may have felt obliged to take part or even coerced into it, especially if they are not fully informed.

Answer 275

Presumptive consent: - Involves taking a random sample of the population and introducing them to the research, including any deception which may result. If they agree to take part in the research it can be presumed that other future participants would do the same so the consent is generalised. Prior general consent: - Involves participants agreeing to take part beforehand in numerous psychological investigations, which may or may not involve deception. This, in effect, means that they will have given consent for being deceived. Retrospective consent: - Involves participants giving consent for their participation after already taking part, for instance, if they were not aware that they were the subject of an investigation. Children as participants: involves gaining the consent of the parent(s) in writing for children under the age of 16 to participate in any psychological research.

Answer 276

Taking a random sample of the population and introducing them to the research, including any deception which may result. If they agree to take part in the research it can be presumed that other future participants would do the same so the consent is generalised.

Answer 277

Participants agreeing to take part beforehand in numerous psychological investigations, which may or may not involve deception. This, in effect, means that they will have given consent for being deceived.

Answer 278

Participants giving consent for their participation after already taking part, for instance, if they were not aware that they were the subject of an investigation.

Answer 279

Gaining the consent of the parent(s) in writing for children under the age of 16 to participate in any psychological research.

Answer 280

The right of individuals to decide how information about them will be communicated to others.

Answer 281

A skilled researcher may obtain more information from a participant than they wish to give which could be an invasion of privacy and the participant may later feel ashamed or embarrassed.

Answer 282

The participant should be provided with fully informed consent and the right to withdraw at any stage. Furthermore, the researcher should explain to participants the way(s) in which their information will be protected and kept confidential, e.g. no names will be published in the final report and any written information or video information will be destroyed.

Answer 283

Where a participant’s personal information is protected by law under the Data Protection Act both during and after the experiment.

Answer 284

A person’s details or data may be used by other parties against the participant’s wishes.

Answer 285

Participants are provide with a fake name, number or initials to protect their identity and assure anonymity. They should not be identifiable by any person, institution or organisation.

Answer 286

Psychologists have the responsibility to protect their participants from physical or psychological harm, including stress. The risk of harm must be no greater than that which they are exposed to in everyday life.

Answer 287

Participants should leave the research in the same state as they entered it. If they are harmed, they may suffer from long‐term effects that could impact their lives in future.

Answer 288

The researcher should remind participants of their right to withdraw throughout and after the research. The researcher should terminate the experiment if the level of psychological or physical harm is higher than expected. Participants should be debriefed at the end of the experiment and in some instances they may be referred to counselling.

Answer 289

An independent assessment process that takes place before a research study is published and is undertaken by other experts in the same field of psychology. All psychologists must be prepared for their work to be scrutinised in this way which is conducted anonymously.

Answer 290

- To provide recommendations about whether the research should be published in the public domain or not, or whether it needs revision. - To check the validity of the research to ensure it is of a high quality. - To assess the appropriateness of the procedure and methodology. - To judge the significance of the research in the wider context of human behaviour. - To assess the work for originality and ensure that other relevant research is sufficiently detailed. - To inform allocation of future research funding to worthy investigative processes.

Answer 291

- Since the peer reviewers are often anonymous in their reporting on the academic research, there is a possibility that they will use this fact as a means to criticise rivals in their field of psychology. There tends to be limited funding for new research so the element of competition could bread jealousy amongst researchers. - As a result, inaccurate or unfair criticism may be received following the peer review process which is not a valid reflection of the quality of the research. - It is sometimes difficult to find a suitable peer. This is especially true when conducting psychological research on a new or ground‐breaking topic. So research which is not of high quality will be passed as suitable for publication as the researcher did not fully comprehend the aims or content. - Results may be published which preserves the status quo by supporting existing theories more readily than more unconventional research might, resulting in a positive publication bias.

Answer 292

- Since the peer reviewers are often anonymous in their reporting on the academic research, there is a possibility that they will use this fact as a means to criticise rivals in their field of psychology. There tends to be limited funding for new research so the element of competition could bread jealousy amongst researchers. - As a result, inaccurate or unfair criticism may be received following the peer review process which is not a valid reflection of the quality of the research. - It is sometimes difficult to find a suitable peer. This is especially true when conducting psychological research on a new or ground‐breaking topic. So research which is not of high quality will be passed as suitable for publication as the researcher did not fully comprehend the aims or content. - Results may be published which preserves the status quo by supporting existing theories more readily than more unconventional research might, resulting in a positive publication bias.

Answer 293

Economy can help portray a clearer picture of how people’s behaviour is affected, in positive or negative ways, in the real world.

Answer 294

Topic: Psychopathology Specification: The biological approach to treating OCD Research: Soomro et al. (2008) conducted a review of research examining the effectiveness of SSRIs and found that they were significantly more effective than placebos in the treatment of OCD, across 17 different trials, which supports the use of biological treatments if OCD. The development of effective treatments for mental health disorders, such as obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), will firstly restore quality of life for the sufferer. This will then impact on their ability to work, meaning less time off work due to ill health and/or less reliance on Government funded incapacity benefit. Likewise, the NHS will save money if treatments are successful as fewer incidents of relapse, requiring, medical attention, are likely to occur.

Answer 295

Topic: Memory Specification: Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. Research: Fisher et al. (1989) examined the effectiveness of the cognitive interview in real police interviews. Sixteen experienced detectives recorded a selection of their interviews, using a standard interviewing technique. The detectives were then divided into two groups.One group was trained to use the cognitive interview, while the other group (control) continued using the standard interview. After training, their subsequent interviews were recorded and analysed. The trained detectives elicited 46% more information after their cognitive interview training, in comparison to the control group. Where it was possible to confirm the information, over 90% of it was found to be accurate. The development of the cognitive interview has been successful in improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony recall. This means that there is a greater chance of the police prosecuting the right criminal from the offset. These techniques can reduce wasted money on wrongful arrests, questioning and court hearings, saving the criminal justice system money.

Answer 296

Topic: Attachment Specification: Role of the father Research: Belsky et al (2009) found that males who reported higher levels of marital intimacy also displayed a secure father infant attachment, which suggests that males can form secure attachments with their children, although the strength of the attachment depends on the father and mother relationship. Research shows that both mothers and fathers are equally capable of childrearing to enable healthy developmental outcomes for the infants. This allows mothers to return to work, free of guilt, and contribute to the economy through the work force. Modern parenting styles can, therefore, maximise the annual household income enabling both parents to contribute most effectively to the economy.

Answer 297

Numerical data that can be statistically analysed and converted easily into a graphical format. Experiments, structured observations, correlations and closed/rating‐scale questions from questionnaires all produce quantitative data.

Answer 298

- It is easy to analyse statistically. When large amounts of numerical data are generated it is relatively easy to conduct descriptive statistics or inferential tests of significance which allow for comparisons and trends to be identified between groups. Since established mathematical procedures are in place for this type of analysis it makes quantitative data more objective.

Answer 299

- Lack of representativeness. Since this type of data is often generated from closed questions, the responses gained are narrow in their scope towards explaining complex human behaviour. This means that, in comparison to qualitative data, the numerical findings can often lack meaning and context. As such, it may not be a true representation of real life and thus lacks validity.

Answer 300

A non‐numerical, language based data expressed in words which is collected through semi‐structured or unstructured interviews and open questions in a questionnaire. It allows researchers to develop an insight into the unique nature of human experiences, opinions and feelings.

Answer 301

The rich detail obtained by the researcher. Since participants can develop their responses freely this provides the investigator with meaningful insights into the human condition. Because of this, the external validity of findings is enhanced as they are more likely to represent an accurate real‐world view.

Answer 302

It can be subjective. Due to the rich, and often lengthy, detail of participants’ responses, interpretations of this type of data can often rely on the opinions and judgements of the researcher. This means that any preconceptions that the researcher holds may act to bias any conclusions drawn.

Answer 303

Refers to data that has been collected for a specific reason and reported by the original researcher. It is data that the participant reports directly to the researcher (often via an interview /questionnaire) or is witnessed first‐hand (via an observation/experiment). Primary data is sometimes referred to as field research.

Answer 304

Authenticity. Collected with the sole purpose of being for a specific investigation. Since the data collection is designed to suit the aims of the research, this enables the researcher to exert a high level of control. This is advantageous as there is a greater probability that the data generated will fit the aims of the investigation, reducing any wasted time on behalf of the researcher and ensuring that the information prepared for analysis is relevant.

Answer 305

Designing and carrying out a psychological study can take a long period of time and considerable effort. This means that expenses can accrue due to the time investment needed on behalf of the researchers in addition to any equipment that needs to be purchased. Therefore, in comparison to primary data, secondary data which already exists can save the researcher time, effort and money.

Answer 306

Information that was collected by other researchers for a purpose other than the investigation in which it is currently being used. In other words, it is data which already exists. Examples include Government reports like the census or statistics about mental health from the NHS. It is sometimes referred to as desk research because the significance of the data is already known.

Answer 307

Since the information already exists in the public domain, it means that it is much less time consuming and expensive to collect. This means that researchers can find the information they desire with very little effort. This makes the collection and use of secondary data much easier when compared with primary data.

Answer 308

Involves concerns over accuracy. Given the information was not gathered to meet the specific aim of the research, it stands to reason that there may be significant variability in the quality of the data. This means that much of the data may be of little or no value to the researchers.

Answer 309

A process whereby investigators combine findings from multiple studies (secondary data) on a specific phenomenon to make an overall analysis of trends and patterns arising across research.

Answer 310

This can include a qualitative review of previous research or a statistical, quantitative analysis to test for significance of effect size.

Answer 311

The results are combined from many studies, rather than just one, the conclusions drawn will be based on a larger sample which provides greater confidence for generalisation. This, therefore, serves to increase the validity of the patterns and trends identified.

Answer 312

Issues of bias. Since the researcher is selecting data from research which has already taken place, they may choose to omit certain findings from their investigation. This could be particularly true if the previous findings showed no significant results or were inconclusive. As a result, the findings and conclusions from the meta analysis will be biased as they do not accurately represent all of the relevant data on the topic.

Answer 313

The quantitative summery.

Answer 314

Researchers to view the data as a whole. It also helps the reader to get an understanding of the data and saves them from needing to navigate through lots of results to get a basic understanding of the data.

Answer 315

A measure of central tendency and a measure of dispersion (which will have been selected based on the type of data collected), and can also include percentages.

Answer 316

About the central, most typical, value in a data set and are calculated in different ways.

Answer 317

- Mean - Median - Mode

Answer 318

- Range - Standard deviation

Answer 319

Calculated by adding up all the scores in the data set and then dividing by the number of scores.

Answer 320

Most representative of all the measures of central tendency because it is comprised of the whole data set.

Answer 321

Most sensitive measure as outliers (extreme scores) can distort the mean. Can only be used with ordinal and interval data.

Answer 322

Calculated by putting all scores in rank order from smallest to largest then selecting the middle number from the data set.

Answer 323

Not distorted by extreme scores.

Answer 324

Does not reflect all scores in the data set.

Answer 325

Calculated by identifying the most frequently occurring score within the data set.

Answer 326

Not distorted by extreme scores. The only method which can be used with nominal data.

Answer 327

There can be more than one mode so it is not always a useful measure of central tendency.

Answer 328

Descriptive statistics that define the spread of data around a central value (mean or median). There are two measures of dispersion: range and standard deviation (SD).

Answer 329

Easy to calculate mathematically without use of a calculator.

Answer 330

Does not indicate the distribution pattern across the whole data set.

Answer 331

Is a precise measurement of dispersion because all values in the data set are included in the calculation.

Answer 332

Extreme values can distort the measurement.

Answer 333

Number of participants who improved / Total number of participants x100

Answer 334

- Tables - Scattergrams - Bar Charts - Histograms

Answer 335

Produces a symmetrical bell shaped curve when plotted, indicating that most scores are close to the mean, with a progressively fewer scores being located at the extremes of either tail of the distribution. In this instance, the median and mode also occupy the same centre point of the curve as the mean does.

Answer 336

Positively skewed

Answer 337

Negatively skewed

Answer 338

In both instances, the mode remains at the highest point on the graph, since it is not affected by extreme scores.

Answer 339

Used when looking for a difference between paired data, i.e. repeated measures design (or matched pairs – counted as one person tested on two occasions) which generates nominal data.

Answer 340

1. Is the hypothesis directional or non-directional? 2. Work out the sign (record each pair of data with + or -depending on the difference in positive and negative) If no difference then discount. 3. Calculate the value of S -(add up the total number of + and - and select the smallest value) 4. Calculate the value of N - (Number of scores - any nil scores) 5. Find the critical value - 0.05 level of significance. 6. Determine whether the results are significant or not - (typically, the p ≤ 0.05 probability level is used unless otherwise stated). For the sign test, the calculated value [2] must be equal to or less than the critical value [1] for the result to be significant. Therefore, these results are not significant as the calculated value of S is 2 which is higher than the critical value of S which is 1. 7. Reporting the conclusions of the sign test - By stating wether it is significant or not.