5. Approaches in Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
Who was Wilhelm Wundt?
A
- First psychologist (looking at science not just the soul)
- Believed the human mind can be explained by science
- He wanted to break things down into basic parts - called structuralism
- thought introspection would uncover our minds inner working
2
Q
What did Wilhelm Wundt do?
A
asked people how they felt after a stimulus like a loud noise or dropping a ball.
compare different participants - general theories about perception
3
Q
What is introspection?
A
The process by which a person gains knowledge about him or her own mental and emotional states enables us to observe our inner world.
4
Q
What did Wilhelm Wundt do?
A
- Separated psychology from philosophy
studying the mind more structured and scientific way
5
Q
What approaches did Wundt use?
A
- Structuralist
- Reductionist
6
Q
What method did Wundt use?
A
Introspection
7
Q
What are the problems with introspection?
A
- Doesn’t explain how the mid works but relies on people describing their thoughts and feelings, which usually isn’t objective
- Doesn’t provide data that can be used reliably as people are reporting on their experiences, their accounts can’t be confirmed
8
Q
What is reductionism?
A
The idea that things can be reduced to simple cause and effect processes.
9
Q
State the features that make something a science
A
- Objectivity
- Control
- Predictability
- Hypothesis testing
- Replication
10
Q
What is objectivity in science?
A
Scientific observations should be recorded without bias and not influenced by any other factors or any other people.
11
Q
What is control in science?
A
Scientific observations should take place under controlled conditions
12
Q
What is predictability in science?
A
Scientists should be able to use the results and knowledge gained from experiments to predict future behaviour
13
Q
What is hypothesis testing in science?
A
Theories generate predictions which can be tested to either strengthen the support for the theory or else disproves it
14
Q
What is replication in science?
A
Each experiment should be able to be replicated exactly so people can have confidence in the results.
15
Q
What are the arguments for psychology as a science?
A
- Allport (1947) said psychology has the same aims as science
- to predict, understand and control
- Behaviourist, cognitive and biological approaches to psychology all use scientific procedures to investigate theories. They are usually controlled and unbiased.
16
Q
What are the arguments against psychology?
A
- unreliable - can be subjective
- hard to generalise
- demand characteristics
17
Q
Define - Empiricism
A
The belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience.
It is generally characterised by the use of the scientific method in psychology
18
Q
Define - Scientific method
A
investigative methods
- objective
- systematic
- replicable
testing and modification of hypotheses based on these methods
19
Q
Who argued the behaviourism (learning theory)?
A
John Watson
20
Q
State the three main assumptions of behaviourism
A
- Nearly all behaviour is learnt
- Animals and humans learn in the same ways
- The ‘mind’ is irrelevant
21
Q
Explain why nearly all behaviour is learnt
A
The only exceptions are a few inborn reflexes and instincts But evidence shows that genetics can influence psychological features. Behaviourism still claims, though, that learning, and not genetics is the cause of the majority of behaviours , even if some vague genetic causes can be found
22
Q
Explain why animals and humans learn in the same way
A
- the principles by which we learn are the same.
- stimulus-response associations between stimuli and our actions.
- both use conditioning
- humans can be said to use other forms of learning as well such as social learning.
23
Q
Why can the mind be seen as irrelevant?
A
- We can’t directly observe and measure a person’s thinking.
- Can only obtain measurable data by studying behaviour.
- cognitive abilities cannot be directly, scientifically measured,
- may give a more complete explanation of behaviour as known by social learning theory.
24
Q
State the two types of conditioning
A
- Classical
- Operant
25
What did Freud do in approaches?
* Freud established the **psychodynamic approach.**
* highlighted the importance of the unconscious mind on behaviour and developed his own therapy called **psychoanalysis**.
26
What did Ivan Pavlov develop?
Theory of classical conditioning.
27
What is classical conditioning?
A type of learning where an existing involuntary reflex is associated with a new stimulus.
28
What was skinners experiments used for?
Used to explain the acquisition of phobias and the development of attachment.
29
Explain how Pavlov used classical conditioning
* dogs
* conditioned sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) with food (unconditioned stimulus).
* producing salivation response (conditioned response) at the sound of a bell (conditioned stimulus), even when no food was present.
* repeated exposure to event leads to learned and uncontrollable behaviour.
* Used to explain the acquisition of phobias and the development of attachment.
30
What did Skinner suggest?
Behaviour is the result of learning through the consequences of our actions.
31
What did skinner use in his testing?
Rats
32
State the three types of reinforcement
1. Positive reinforcement
2. Negative reinforcement
3. Punishment
33
Define - Positive reinforcement
When a behaviour is followed by a desirable consequence (reward) and is more likely to be repeated.
34
Define - Negative reinforcement
When a behaviour is followed by the removal of an adverse consequence and is more likely to be repeated
35
Define - Punishment
When a behaviour is followed by an unpleasant consequence and is less likely to be repeated.
36
Explain Skinner's test
* Skinner box to examine operant conditioning in rats and pigeons.
* animal move cage
* pressed the lever (by accident) rewarded with a food pellet.
* Learn, through positive reinforcement, when the lever is pressed, its rewarded with food.
* learnt a new voluntary behaviour which is repeated to receive the reward again.
37
State the strengths to the behaviourist approach
* Contributed to the still-developing recognition of psychology as a science.
* The behaviourists were influential in encouraging the use of animals as research subjects.
* Made important contributions to our modern understanding of human mental illness.
38
State the limitations of the behaviourist approach
* Limited view regarding the origins of behaviour.
* Using animals is unethical as there is less concern about protection from harm for non-human subjects.
39
Explain why the behaviourist approach contributed to the still-developing recognition of psychology as a science.
* Pavlov and Skinner - rejected earlier emphasis in psychology on introspection
* encouraging research focused on objective dimensions of behaviour.
* led to an increasingly valid and reliable understanding of human behaviour.
* helped psychology gain credibility and status as a scientific discipline
* attracts more funding and research opportunities.
40
Explain how the behaviourists were influential in encouraging the use of animals as research subjects.
* learning processes in humans and animals are very similar
* Pavlov - dogs
* Skinner - rats and pigeons.
* non-human animals gives experimenters more control over the process
* without demand characteristics or individual differences influencing findings.
41
Explain the issues and debates of the behaviourist approach
* Suggests all behaviour are learned - **nurture** side of the **nature-nurture** debate - experiences and surroundings shape behaviour - directly
* Behaviour is controlled by something as **simple** as a **stimulus-response** **association -** **environmental determinism. -** behaviour product of environmental learning.
42
What does the Social learning theory rest on?
The idea of observational learning
43
Explain the Social Learning theory
* Learning through observation and imitation of behaviour preformed
* role models
* importance of cognitive processes
* mediational processes
* rejects notion - learning purely the outcome of a stimulus-response loop.
44
State the four distinct mediations in the SLT
1. - Attention
2. - Retention
3. - Reproduction
4. - Motivation
45
What are the sections of the SLT?
1. - Modeling
2. - Imitation
3. - Identification
4. - Vicarious Reinforcement
46
What experiment did Bandura, Ross and Ross do?
The Bobo Doll Experiment - 1961
47
Who did the Bobo Doll Experiment?
Bandura, Ross and Ross
48
What was the aim of the Bobo Doll Experiment?
To investigate whether aggression can be learned through social learning theory principles.
49
What is the method of the Bobo Doll Experiment?
* 72 children (36 male and 36 female)
* aged 3-6 years old
* one of three groups for 10 minutes:
* sub-divided by gender of the child and the adult model
1. **Aggressive model** – the child played in a room while an adult hit and shouted at a “Bobo doll"
2. **Non-aggressive model** – the child played in a room while an adult played quietly with a construction set.
3. **Control group** - The child did not see a model. Placed alone in a room with a range of aggressive toys and non aggressive toys and the Bobo doll for twenty minutes whilst being observed.
50
What were the results of Bandura's study?
* Children who saw the aggressive model produced more aggressive acts
* Boys imitated same-sex models more than girls.
* Girls imitated more physical aggression if they saw male models
* More verbal aggression if they saw female models.
51
What is the conclusion of Bandura's study?
Aggressive behaviour can be learned, in children, through observation and imitation of a model.
52
Explain the issues and debates of the Social Learning Theory
* Recognise behaviour is controlled by outside forces - But cognitions also have a role to play - **soft determinism**.
* Bandura - Bobo doll - later work investigated role of vicarious learning in shaping behaviour - **nomothetic approach** - generate general laws of behaviour - widely applied. - **generalised**
53
What does the cognitive approach focus on?
* Examination of internal mental processes such as perception, memory, attention and consciousness.
* internal and not studied directly
* operation must be inferred from the observation and measurement of visible human behaviour.
54
What two ways do cognitive psychologists make inferences?
* Theoretical models
* Computer models
55
What do theoretical models enable?
The visual representation of complex conceptual processes.
56
What do computer models provide?
Provide a basis for research within the field of cognitive psychology.
57
What are internal mental processes?
The operations that occur during thinking.
58
State examples of internal mental processes
* - Perception
* - Memory
* - Attention
* - Language
* - Problem-solving
59
Explain the schema theory
* information-processing model
* emphasises how perception and memory shaped by cognitive frameworks.
* Schemas mental frameworks of information used to organise past experiences
* interpret and respond to new situations.
60
What can schemas be used as an example for?
**Top-down information-processing.**
Expectations about what will happen in the world rather than requiring us to process every single detail all of the time.
61
What do schemas allow us to make sense of?
“**filling in the gaps**” in our knowledge.
* enable us to act comfortably when our information is incomplete
* easier to deal with complex situations.
* schemas can lead to errors in information-processing such as prejudice and discrimination.
62
What are theoretical models?
* Visual representations of internal mental processes
* help researchers simplify and study complex processes.
* Theoretical models are typically diagrams or flowcharts
* Show how information is passed between the different systems that manipulate it.
63
What is cognitive neuroscience?
* Non-invasive brain scanning techniques like PET scans and MRIs
* understand which parts of the brain are active while specific internal mental processes are being used.
64
What memory is the hippocampus associated with?
Episodic memory.
65
What memory is the temporal lobe associated with?
Semantic memory
66
What memory is the cerebellum and motor cortes associated with?
Procedural memories
67
Explain the issues and debates of the cognitive approach
* cognitive approach pays respect to **both nature and nurture** - recognises behaviour of information processing - occurs in the brain - of biological origin (nature) - schema modified by experience in the environment (nurture).
* both **nomothetic and idiographic approaches** in psychology - utilises both experimental methods to **generate universal laws** - draws on findings of individual case studies, such as Phineas Gage and Clive Wearing
68
Explain what the biological approach assumes
* biological origin - to comprehend human behaviour fully,
* necessary to understand internal biological structures and processes including genes, the nervous system, and neurochemistry.
69
Define - Genotype
A person’s genotype is their genetic makeup, which is fixed from birth.
70
Define - Phenotype
A person’s phenotype - expression of genes leads to the observable characteristics of a person.
The phenotype influenced by both the genetic inheritance and the interaction of this with the environment.
71
What are monozygotic twins?
They share 100% of their DNA. Identical
72
What are dizygotic twins?
Share 50% of their DNA Non-identical
73
What do biological psychologists believe?
The structure of organs determines behaviour.
74
What does the nervous system transmit?
Transmits messages through a type of nerve cell called a neuron.
75
What is the occipital lobe associated with?
Visual perception
76
What is the parietal lobe linked to?
The processing of sensory information
77
What case study did Phineas Gage demonstrate?
* The effect of damage to the brain.
* Phineas lost his ability to inhibit antisocial behaviour after an explosion sent an iron bar through his head, destroying the frontal cortex
78
What do biological psychologists recogise?
The role of chemicals in determining behaviour
79
What happens at the synapses?
Signals are sent between neurones by chemicals called neurotransmitters.
80
What is an imbalance of neurotransmitters associated with?
Atypical behaviour
too little serotonin has been associated with depression and too much dopamine has been associated with schizophrenia.
81
What did natural selection ensure?
* Characteristics provide evolutionary advantage
* survival and enhanced reproductive chances
* are passed from one generation to the next
* whilst others which do not, die out.
82
Give a classic example of evolutionary psychology research
* Buss
* Survey of heterosexual mate selection.
* Across all 37 countries
* found men preferred good looks, youth and chastity
* women preferred good financial prospects, industriousness and dependability.
* results suggest certain behaviours and traits evolved in both males and females they promote better prospects for passing on favourable genes.
83
Explain the issues and debates of the biological approach
* broken down into its component parts - means phenomena are explained using genetic, neurochemical or structural explanations resulting in a **reductionist (biological) perspective**.
* the widely accepted biological approach takes the **nature** side of the **nature-nurture debate -** behaviour is determined by innate features including **genes and neurotransmitters** acknowledgement paid to the role of the environment with the interaction of the two influencings an individual’s phenotype.
84
what did **Sigmund Freud** propose?
**The notion of the unconscious**, which lies at the roots of his hugely influential theory.
85
What metaphor did Sigmund Freud use to describe the unconscious mind?
**iceberg**
* psychodynamic approach - vast parts of the mind are inaccessible to conscious awareness.
* **consciousness** - small part of the structure we are aware of
* **unconscious** - larger proportion of the human mind we are not directly aware or able to access it at will.
* Any traumatic events are repressed into the unconscious mind and kept there, hidden from conscious awareness.
* never truly forgotten and can be explored through psychoanalysis.
* ‘Freudian slips’. - when subconscious becomes concious
86
What is the conscious mind?
All your thoughts and perceptions
87
What are the three sections of Freuds's iceberg metaphor?
1. concious
2. preconcous
3. unconcious
88
What three drives make up a human according to Freud?
1. Id
2. Ego
3. Superego
89
What three main assumptions did Freud make?
1. Personality (psyche) has a **discernible structure (ID, ego and** **superego)**
2. That it is **constructed by the passage through psychosexual stages of development** throughout infancy and adolescence
3. The **unconscious** conflicts in the psyche are **mediated by processes called** **defence mechanisms.**
90
What is the ID?
The ID is **pure erotic energy** and is **governed by the pleasure principle.**
It consists of **primal urges** which Freud called drives and seeks nothing **but a pleasure and instant gratification.**
It operates on **instinct** and is the part of the personality which is **present at birth.**
91
Which of Freud's components is present from birth?
The ID
92
What is a Freudian slip?
The unconscious mind can reveal itself in several ways including dreams, fantasies and slips of the tongue,
93
What is Freuds Ego?
Governed by the **reality principle** and is tasked with **taming the ID** and **balancing the demands of the superego,** much like a referee overseeing a football match.
The ego is **not present at birth** and arises in response to control by others, **specifically parents during the anal** stage of development (see below), at around two years old.
94
When does the Ego develop?
In the Anal stage of development, normally from parents actions.
Around 2 years old
95
What is the superego?
Governed by the **morality principle**: our **sense of right and wrong.**
It is characterised by the **‘inner voice’** that tells us when we have crossed into the boundaries of **unacceptable behaviour.**
The superego is the internalised parent and develops in response to **parental discipline** around **five years old.**
96
When does the superego develop?
Due to parental discipline, normally around 5 years old.
97
What are defence mechanisms and what are they controlled by?
Defence mechanisms are used by the **ego** in order to c**ope with the conflicting demands of the other two parts of the personality:** the ID and superego.
The ego works by **distorting reality** so that the individual can
continue with their everyday life without unpleasant feelings or memories dominating their conscious awareness.
98
What are the three types of defence mechanisms?
1. Denial
2. Repression
3. Displacement
99
Explain what is meant by repression?
Repression occurs when a traumatic or distressing memory is **forced out of conscious awareness** and **into the unconscious mind.**
100
Explain what is meant by denial
Denial involves a r**efusal to accept the truth or reality** of a situation, acting as though nothing distressing has happened.
101
Explain what is meant by displacement
Displacement is when the feelings towards a target, an individual cannot be **expressed directly** and are therefore **transferred onto someone/something else.**
102
What are the psychosexual stages of development?
* oral
* anal
* phallic
* latent
* genital
the desire for bodily pleasure denied and redirected by its parents until they focus exclusively on the appropriate sexual outlet for the given stage.
103
What did Freud think would happen if a child failed to resolve a conflict from one stage of development?
They may develop a fixation where they display certain behaviours/characteristics in their adult life.
The driver of this process is the Oedipus Complex
104
What is the Oedipus complex?
Boys relinquish their unconscious desire for their mother and internalise the fear of castration by their father.
This process is traumatic, and cannot be confronted directly, and so the ego establishes defence mechanisms, such as repression and denial, to mediate the psychological terrors it generates.
105
Describe what happens during the Oral stage of development
The infant experiences pleasure through their mouth, particularly sucking and biting.
If unresolved an oral fixation is developed. So a person may engage in smoking or nail-biting.
Age - 0-2
106
Describe the oral stage of development
Focus - Mouth
The infant experiences pleasure through their mouth, particularly sucking and biting.
107
If unsolved what does the oral stage of development become?
**Oral fixation**
Person engages in behaviours like smoking, nail-biting.
108
Describe the anal stage of development
Focus - Anus
The child becomes aware of the reality principle imposed by the
parents and must undergo potty training in order to control their bowel movements.
It is during this stage the Ego develops.
109
What are the two types of anal fixation?
1) **Anal retentive**: here a person might become an obsessive perfectionist;
2) **Anal explusive:** here a person might be messy and thoughtless.
110
Describe the phallic stage of development
Focus - Genitals
The **Oedipus complex** - infant boys must overcome their unconscious sexual desire for their mother by identifying with their father.
It is during this stage that the **Superego** develops.
111
What unsolved fixation can occur from the phallic stage of development?
Phallic fixation or phallic personal
May manifest in reckless and narcissistic behaviours.
112
Describe the latent stage of development
Focus - hidden
The sexual energy which has driven the previous stages now
becomes latent, so the individual can focus on the world around them and form friendships.
113
Which of the stages of development don't cause a fixation if left unsolved?
Latent stage
114
Describe the genital stage of development
Focus - forming heterosexual relationships
The final stage culminates with the psychosexual energy taking
residence in the genitals, to be directed towards the formation of adult relationships.
115
What fixation can the genital stage of development lead to?
A person who becomes fixated at the genital stage might struggle to form **heterosexual relationships.**
116
What are three signposts you could use to evaluate the psychodynamic approach?
1. influential in both the practice of psychology and in our understanding of how culture operates.
2. Empirical research to support the effectiveness of psychoanalysis
3. Gender bias
117
What are some possible issues and debates that can be used for Freud's psychodynamic approach?
* psychodynamic approach - human behaviour is governed by unconscious drives - early traumatic childhood experiences repressed into the unconscious mind. Individual no **free will** over their behaviour and instead is under the influence of **Psychic determinism**
* **not empirically testable. -** human mind cannot be dissected to reveal the id, ego and superego - **not scientific** in its approach to explaining human behaviour understanding relies solely on the **subjective** interpretation of the psychoanalyst.
118
Which two psychologists were the founding figures of humanistic psychology?
Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers
119
How is humanistic psychology different from the other approaches in psychology?
Intensively focused on discovering what it means to be fully human.
120
What does humanistic psychology assume about free will?
* That every individual can assert free will and have a choice in how they behave.
* consciously control and influence - own personal destiny.
* radically different from the other approaches suggest that human behaviour is, to some extent, determined.
121
What model did Maslow develop?
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
122
What is Maslow's Hierarchy of needs?
1. The most basic human needs to be met are biological (**physiological**)
2. **safety and security**
3. l**ove and belonging**
4. esteem including **self-esteem** and respect from others.
5. **self-actualisation,** spirituality, creativity and acceptance of the world as it is.
123
What does self-actualisation achieve?
The possibility of true self-awareness and an honest relationship with the realities of an imperfect world.
124
What did Maslow believe would happen when self-actualisation is achieved?
When it is achieved, takes the form of peak experiences which are characterised by **feelings of euphoria** and **seeing the world with awe and wonder, without any fear or inhibitions.**
He cited **Albert Einstein** as an individual who had famously achieved self-actualisation through his creativeness.
125
Who did Maslow cite as having achieved self-actualisation through his creativeness?
Albert Einstein
126
What two basic human needs did Maslow focus on?
1. A need for **Self-worth**
2. The need for **unconditional self-regard** from other people
They have a direct impact on psychological well-being and emerge from good relationships with supportive parents in childhood and later friends and partners.
127
What are the conditions of worth?
* expectations where the individual feels - approval is dependent upon meeting them in order for other people, such as parents, to see them favourably.
* possible that a person will only feel **self-acceptance** should they **meet these conditions of worth** set by others which can produce a feeling of incongruence.
128
What did Rogers believe unhappiness and dissatisfaction were the outcome of?
A psychological gap between **self-concept** and the **Ideal-self**
When these two concepts are incongruent it is necessary to use defence mechanisms to provide protection against feeling negative.
129
What is the self-concept?
The way you think you are
130
What is the ideal self?
The way you would like to be
131
What is a state of congruence?
When there is an agreement between an individual's self-concept and their ideal self, they are said to be in a state of congruence.
It is uncommon for a person to be congruent all of the time so most individuals will have or are experiencing some degrees of inconguence.
132
Evaluate the origins of psychology
* **focus on non-observable behaviour -** report conscious experiences - memory and perception - lack reliability - lack internal validity - not generalised
* **lack accuracy -** Nisbett and Wilson - little knowledge of caused or contributes to behaviours - participants unaware of diff factors that influence choice - lack internal validity - lack reliability
* **reliance on objective and systematic methods -** change beliefs through empirical and replicable methods - account of new info - scientific method used
133
Evaluate the behaviourist approach
* **treatment applications phobias -** class cond led to systematic desensitisation - replace learned response with another - eg. Arachnophobia - eco validity - NHS app - concurrent validity
* **contradictory theories -** Seligman - preparedness explains why some relationships are easier to establish - eg. dogs innate to food not to a bell. - lack external validity
* **experimental methods used -** Skinner used controlled conditions - discover causal relationship - Skinner Box allowed manipulation of consequences - cause and effect established - scientific method - reliable
134
Evaluate the social learning theory
* **applications to criminal behaviour -** Akers - increase crim if exposed to models - copy behaviours if see positive consequences - stop adverts - eco validity
* **research support for identification -** Fox and Bailenson - imitate virtual human who looks similar over those dissimilar - models - the murder of James Bulger - real-world app
* **problems of causality -** Siegel and McCormick - deviant children seek peers with sim attitudes - have more fun - not imitate but seek similar - SLT not a cause - lack int val
135
Evaluate the cognitive approach
* **treatment app - disorders -** faulty thinking cause depression - CBT - long term solutions - eco validity - NHS app - no drugs with side effects
* **scientific method -** to collect and evaluate - evidence-based - valid representation - reliable - generalise
* **humans are not computers -** encoding, storage and retrieval computing not humans - we make mistakes and forget info - not accurate - no external validity
136
Evaluate the biological approach
* **disorder treatment app -** neurochemical research - depression - drug therapy - SSRIs - serotonin uptake - immediate solution - quicker and cheaper than CBT - eco validity - NHS
* **scientific method -** highly controlled environments - using PET and fMRI scanning - easy to replicate - internal validity - not real world - not reliable
* **highly reductionist -** bio reductionist - break into smaller components eg. genes - eg. depression - serotonin - also enviro factors
137
evaluate the humanist approach
* **applications - counselling -** unconditional positive regard help self-awareness - real-world applications - client centred therapy - eco validity
* **an unrealistic view of human nature -** point to sinister aspects of humans behaviour - growth-oriented behaviour whilst ignoring individual capacity to self-destruction - focus on self-development - lack pop validity - lack realism
138
Evaluate the psychodynamic approach
* **not scientific approach -** no empirical testing - human mind not dissected into id, ego and superego - relies solely on subjective interpretations - not reliable - lack pop validity
* **culturally biased -** Viennese middle-class sample - called talking cure - only suitable for a culture where discussion is encouraged - doubt of effectiveness - lack pop validity - lack concurrent validity
* **gender bias -** obsessed with Oedipus complex - irrelevant to women - Melanie Klien - adapted - developed - lack generalisation - lack pop validity
