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AS level Psychology > 4. Psychopathology > Flashcards

4. Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is psychopathology?

A

The study of psychological disorders

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2
Q

What is an issue with studying mental health problems?

A
  • How can you identify when a person is actually psychologically unwell.
  • How to determine if their behaviour differs from what is considered ‘normal’ and at what point should that person be classified as ‘abnormal’.
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3
Q

What are the four definitions for abnormality?

A
  • Deviation from social norms
  • Failure to function adequately
  • Statistical infrequency
  • Deviation from ideal mental health.
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4
Q

What is a social norm?

A

An unwritten rule about what is acceptable within a particular society.

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5
Q

How can you be seen as abnormal due to the definition of a deviation from social norms?

A

Their thinking or behaviour violates the unwritten rules (social norms) about what is acceptable.

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6
Q

According to the FFAs definition when is a person considered abnormal?

A
  • If they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life and live independently in society.
  • The person’s behaviour should cause personal suffering and distress because of their failure to cope.
  • They may also cause distress or discomfort to other people who observe their behaviour.
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7
Q

According to the statistical infrequency definition, when is a behaviour seen as abnormal?

A
  • Abnormal if it is statistically uncommon or not seen very often in society.
  • Distribution of a particular behaviour within society.
  • 2x distributions away from the mean.
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8
Q

What can you use to represent the proportions of the population who share a particular characteristic?

(Used in statistical infrequency definition)

A

Normal distribution curve.

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9
Q

What did Jahoda believe defined abnormality?

A

1958

  • Absence of particular (ideal) characteristics.
  • Behaviours that move away (deviate) from ideal mental health.
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10
Q

What were Jahoda’s six principles for ideal mental health?

A
  1. Having a positive view of yourself (high self‐esteem) with a strong sense of identity
  2. Being capable of personal growth and self‐actualisation
  3. Being independent of others (autonomous) and self‐regulating
  4. Having an accurate view of reality
  5. Being able to integrate and resist stress
  6. Being able to master your environment (love, friendships, work, and leisure time)
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11
Q

In the UK what system do we use to diagnose psychological disorders?

A

the ICD

International statistical classification of diseases and related Health problems

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12
Q

What are three psychological disorders included by ICD?

A
  • Phobias
  • Depression
  • Obsessive compulsive disorder
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13
Q

In what three categories can symptoms of psychological disorders be organised?

A
  • Behaviour
  • emotional
  • cognitive
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14
Q

Define - phobia

A

Phobias are categorised as an anxiety disorder which causes an irrational fear of a particular object or situation.

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15
Q

What are the three categories of phobias?

A
  1. SImple (specific) phobias
  2. Social phobias
  3. Agoraphobia
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16
Q

What is the most common type of phobia?

A

Simple (specific) phobias

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17
Q

What is agoraphobia?

A

Fear of open or public spaces and sufferers may experience panic attacks and anxiety, which make them feel vulnerable in open spaces.

Caused by simple or social phobias

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18
Q

What are the two behavioural characteristics of phobias?

A

Avoidance and Panic

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19
Q

What are the emotional characteristics of phobias?

A
  • *Excessive** and unreasonable
  • *fear, anxiety and panic**.

An excessive emotional response is triggered by the presence, or the anticipation of, a specific object or situation.

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20
Q

What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?

A

Selective attention and irrational beliefs

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21
Q

What is selective attention in the context of cognitive characteristics of phobias?

A
  • If a person with a phobia is presented with an object or situation they fear, they will find it difficult to direct their attention elsewhere.
  • Fixated on the object they fear, because of their irrational beliefs about the danger posed.
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22
Q

What is irrational thinking in the context of cognitive characteristics of phobias?

A
  • A person’s phobia is defined by their irrational thinking towards the object or situation.
  • Eg. arachnophobia - spiders are dangerous and deadly, despite the fact that no spiders in the UK are actually deadly.
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23
Q

Define - depression

A

Depression is a category of mood disorders, which is often divided into two main types:

  1. unipolar
  2. bipolar disorder (formerly known as manic‐depression).
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24
Q

What must sufferers of depression display in order to be diagnosed?

A

At least 5 symptoms every day for at least 2 weeks

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25
Q

What are the behavioural characteristics of depression?

A
  • Loss of energy
  • sleep disturbance
  • changes in appetite.
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26
Q

What are the emotional characteristics of depression?

A
  • Depressed mood
  • feelings of worthlessness
  • lack of interest or pleasure in all activities.
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27
Q

What are the cognitive characteristics of depression?

A
  • Diminished ability to concentrate
  • Tendency to focus on the negative.
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28
Q

What is OCD?

A

(Obsessive Compulsive Disorder),

like phobias, is classified as an anxiety disorder and has two main components, obsessions and compulsions.

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29
Q

What are obsessions and compulsions in OCD sufferers?

A
  • Main components of OCD
  • Obsessions are reoccurring and persistent thoughts.
  • Compulsions are repetitive behaviours.
  • 70% of OCD sufferers experience combined obsessions and compulsions.
  • However, 20% experience just obsessions and 10% experience just compulsions.
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30
Q

What are the behavioural characteristics of OCD suffers?

A
  • Compulsions are repetitive in nature and sufferers will often feel compelled to repeat a behaviour such as repetitive hand washing.
  • Secondly, compulsions are used to manage or reduce anxiety.
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31
Q

What are the emotional characteristics of OCD suffers?

A
  • Anxiety
  • Depression
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32
Q

What are the cognitive characteristics of OCD suffers?

A
  • Obsessive thoughts.
  • Adopted cognitive strategies to deal with obsessions
  • Suffers know they’re irrational and experience selective attention directed towards the anxiety-generating stimuli.
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33
Q

What are some possible issues and debates for clinical characteristics?

A
  • Lack of cross‐cultural statistics on these disorders
  • Based in Western cultures
  • Ethnocentric bias.
  • Environmental determinism
  • Learned responses to stress triggers.
  • Avoidance or obsessive rituals.
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34
Q

What can abnormal behaviour be caused by?

A
  1. classical conditioning
  2. operant conditioning
  3. social learning theory
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35
Q

What did Mowrer propose?

A

The two-process model

To explain how phobias are learned through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning.

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36
Q

According to the two-process model, how can phobias be acquired?

A

Classical conditioning and associative learning.

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37
Q

What is classical conditioning in terms of phobias?

A
  • Learning by associating two stimuli together to condition a response.
  • Through associative learning.
  • Neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned stimulus, conditioned response
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38
Q

How investigated phobias being learnt through classical conditioning?

A

Watson and Rayner

39
Q

What was the aim of Watson and Rayner’s study?

A

To investigate whether a fear response could be learned through classical conditioning in humans.

40
Q

What method did Watson and Rayner use?

A
  1. Case study - ‘Little Albert’. (11 years)
  2. No previous response to various objects eg. a white rat.
  3. Struck metal bar with a hammer behind Little Albert’s head, causing a very loud noise that startled him, every time he went to reach for the rat.
  4. They did this three times.
41
Q

What results did Watson and Rayner get from their experiment?

A

Whenever Albert saw a white rat or similar he began to cry.

42
Q

What conclusions did Watson and Rayner draw from their study?

A
  • Fear response could be induced through classical conditioning in humans.
  • Little Albert also developed a fear towards similar objects, including a white Santa Claus beard.
  • Little Albert had generalised his fear to other white furry objects.
43
Q

Explain operant conditioning in the terms of phobias

A
  • Most phobias are long‐term and according to Mowrer, our phobias are maintained through operant conditioning.
  • Phobias can be negatively reinforced.
  • This is where behaviour is strengthened because an unpleasant consequence is removed.
44
Q

What is the weakness of the classical conditioning way to explain phobias?

A

Struggles to explain why our phobias do not decay over time.

45
Q

What are the two behavioural treatments for phobias?

A

systematic desensitisation and flooding

Both use the principles of classical conditioning to replace a person’s phobias with a new response.

46
Q

What is systematic desensitisation?

A

Using counter-conditioning to unlearn the maladaptive response to a situation or object by eliciting another response like relaxation.

47
Q

What are the three critical components to systematic desensitization?

A
  1. fear hierarchy - working together to rank phobic situations
  2. relaxation training - learn techniques to combat
  3. reciprocal inhibition - expose to the phobic situation until ready to move to the next stage of the hierarchy.
48
Q

What is reciprocal inhibition?

A

According to systematic desensitisation two emotional states cannot exist at the same time.

49
Q

What is flooding?

A
  • exposes to anxiety‐inducing stimulus immediately.
  • Intense exposure over an extended period of time in a safe and controlled manner.
  • Unable to avoid (negatively reinforce) phobia and through continuous exposure, anxiety levels eventually decrease.
  • Positively associate
50
Q

What are the issues and debates surrounding phobias?

A
  • Reductionist and overly simplistic
  • Reduction of human behaviour to a simple stimulus‐response association.
  • Ignores cognition (thinking) who suggest phobias caused by irrational thinking, not just learning.
  • Environmental determinism ignores free will
  • Nomothetic approach - universal laws
  • A more idiographic approach may be effective as individuals cognitions are different
51
Q

According to the cognitive approach what is the cause of emotional problems?

A

Cognitive distortions - irrational thinking

52
Q

What are the two cognitive theories which attempt to explain depression?

A
  • Beck’s cognitive triad
  • Ellis irrational thinking (ABC model)
53
Q

What did Beck claim cause depression?

A
  • Caused by negative self-schemas maintaining the cognitive triad.
  • A negative and irrational view of ourselves our future and the world around us.
  • For sufferers of depression, these thoughts occur automatically and are symptomatic of depressed people.
54
Q

How does COMT affect OCD suffers?

A
  • COMT activity low
  • Dopamine levels high
  • caudate nucleus overactive
  • Hypervigilance (anxiety)
  • Obsessive thoughts
55
Q

How does SERT’s effect OCD sufferers?

A
  • SERT activity high
  • Seratonin levels low
  • orbitofrontal cortex underachieve
  • impulsiveness
  • obsessions
56
Q

What are the two biological explanations for OCD?

A
  • Genetic - inherited
  • Neural - Abnormal neurotransmitters and certain regions of the brain.
57
Q

What does Taylor say is the cause of OCD?

A

Over 230 genes involved in the condition and different types of OCD.

Polygenic condition

58
Q

What are two genes that have been linked to OCD?

A

COMT - Low activity (too much dopamine)

SERT - high activity (too little serotonin)

59
Q

Give an example of two neurotransmitters associated with OCD

A

Seratonin

Dopamine

60
Q

What does Serotonin do?

A
  • Regulates mood
  • These lower levels of serotonin are associated with mood disorders.
  • Impulse control
  • OCD
61
Q

What do SSRIs do?

A

Increase levels of serotonin

62
Q

How is dopamine associated with OCD?

A

Higher levels associated with symptoms of OCD.

63
Q

What brain regions are associated with OCD?

A

Worry circuit: (continues signals in these areas)​

  • Orbitofrontal cortex - send signals to thalamus about worrying
  • Thalamus - impulse to act and stop activity due to impulses
  • Caudate nucleus - normally suppresses signals from OFC

Basal ganglia - head trauma increases the development of OCD like symptoms.

64
Q

How does the orbitofrontal cortex affect OCD?

A
  • Converts sensory info into thoughts and actions.
  • Higher activity in OCD patients.
65
Q

What three points of evaluation can be used for explaining OCD?

A
    • research support seen in family studies
    • in twin studies
  • _ issue understanding neural mechanisms
    • Credible alternative explanation (two-process model)
66
Q

What is the aim of biological treatments for OCD?

A

To restore chemical balances in the brain.

67
Q

What are the two types of drug therapy for OCD?

A
  1. Antidepressant drugs
  2. Anti-anxiety drugs
68
Q

Give an example of an SSRI

A

Prozac

69
Q

What are examples of Benzodiazepines?

A
  1. Valium
  2. Diazepam
70
Q

What do BZs do?

A
  • Enhance action of GABA
  • This tells brain to slow down
  • So quieting influence on brain
71
Q

Give points that can be used to evaluate the biological treatments of OCD

A
    • Research suuport for effectiveness (placebo drug trails)
    • cost effective - in comparison to psychological treatments eg. CBT
    • side effects eg. BZs can’t drive/ work, constantly feel drunk
    • treat symptoms not cause
    • biologically reductionist
    • nomothetic approach - same for all
72
Q

Draw Becks cognitive triad

A

Self, world and future

73
Q

Define - schema

A
  • A package of knowledge storing information and ideas about ourselves and the world around us.
74
Q

What does Beck believe about schemas?

A
  • Developed in childhood
  • depressed people contain negative self-schemas
  • may come from a negative experience
75
Q

What did Beck find depressed people were more likely to do?

A

To focus on the negative aspects of a situation.

Cognitive bias

  • Overgeneralization
  • catastrophising
76
Q

What is over generalisation?

A

Depressed people make sweeping conclusions based on a single incident.

77
Q

What is catastropising?

A

Depressed people exaggerate a minor setback and believe its a complete disaster.

78
Q

What makes up Beck’s negative triad?

A

The negative view of three key aspects of a person’s life leading to depression.

  1. The self
  2. The world
  3. The future
79
Q

What did Ellis believe was the cause of depression?

A

Good mental health is the result of rational thinking allowing people to be happy and pain-free.

Depression is a result of irrational thinking preventing us being happy and pain-free.

80
Q

What model did Ellis propose?

A

ABC Model

Activating event

Beliefs

Consequences

81
Q

What did Ellis believe was the cause of depression?

A

Three-stage model explaining how irrational thoughts lead to depression:

  1. Activating Event
  2. Beliefs - rational or irrational
  3. consequences - rational to healthy emotional outcomes where irrational leads to unhealthy emotional outcomes including depression.
82
Q

State what points can be used to evaluate the cognitive approach to explaining depression

A
    • applications to therapy - CBT and REBT from ABC model
    • Doesn’t explain origin of irrational thoughts
    • alternative explanations - biological genes and neurotransmitters using SSRIs
    • research evidence - Boury et al - misinterpretation of information in a negative way.
83
Q

What is a cognitive treatment for depression?

A

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

To identify irrational and negative thoughts leading to depression.

Aim to replace negative with more positive and rational thoughts.

84
Q

What are the various components of CBT?

A
  1. Initial assessment
  2. Goal setting
  3. Idnetifying negative/irrational thoughts and challenging these:
    1. Either Becks cognitive therapy or Ellis’s REBT
  4. Homework
85
Q

Explain Beck’s cognitive behavioural therapy

A
  • Homework - Identify negative thoughts in relation to themselves, their world and their future, using Beck’s negative triad.
  • Behavioural Activation - Challenge these irrational thoughts, by discussing the evidence for and against them.
  • Unconditional positive regard - Never diminish or ridicule their responses.
  • Encourage patient to test the validity of their negative thoughts and maybe set homework, to challenge and test their negative thoughts.
86
Q

Explain how Ellis’s Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy works

A
  • Disputing irrational cognitions - identify core beliefs in assessment using ABC model or negative triad
  • Effects of disputing/effective attitudes - dispute irrational cognitions and attitudes
  • Feelings that result from the process - discuss and rationalise emotions
  • The therapist will dispute the patient’s irrational beliefs, to replace their irrational beliefs with more effective beliefs and attitudes.
87
Q

State the points of evaluation for the cognitive approach to treating depression

A
    • research evidence - March et al. CBT 80% effective where antidepressants 75%
    • requires motivation - engagement symptom of depression.
    • overemphasis on the role of cognition
    • scientific approach
    • considers nature and nurture
    • soft determinism
88
Q

Evaluate the definitions of abnormality

A
  • Some abnormal behaviours are desirable - statistical infrequency - Higher than average IQ - also depression is relatively common - lack ecological validity - cultural bias - difficult to quantify
  • Cut of point is subjective - statistical infrequency - separate normality and abnormality - depression - difficulty sleeping - different people need different amount of sleep.
  • Unrealistic - ideal mental health - most of us are abnormal - not all criteria - lack internal validity - lack ecological - not in NHS
89
Q

Evaluate the two-process model of explaining phobias

A
  • Fears exist without traumatic experience - Ohman and Seligman - some innate fears like snakes and heights - may be genetic -neurotransmitters poorly regulated in phobics - environmentally reductionist - evidence support
  • Ignores cognitive aspect - phobias a consequence of irrational thinking about certain situations - CBT - may be more successful than behaviourist treatments - can not generalise - ecological validity in treatments NHS
  • Incomplete explanation - becomes neutral stimulus associated with fearful experiences - Di nardo found not all those bitten by dogs have phobias - the genetic inheritance of vulnerability for developing mental disorders - disorder manifests if triggering event - lack ecological validity.
90
Q

Evaluate the treatments of phobias

A
  • if flooding unsuccessful then harm to patient - exposed yo fear stimulus - if not cured then risk of panic attacks and more extreme avoidance - last resort - increase risk of more anxiety disorders and depression - unethical - cost NHS - cost-benefit
  • generalisable - permanent improvements to anxiety coping - coping strategies can be reused - no side effects - medicines drowsiness and nausea - addition - long term solution - diathesis stress - ecologically valid
  • individual differences - less effective - not all patients - highly traumatic - quitting reduces effectiveness - can’t generalise to everyone - ethics righ to withdraw
91
Q

Evaluate the explanations for depression

A
  • Ellis good applications in CBT - challenge negative irrational to reduce depression - research support - 90% success rate REBT - successful therapies - long term solution - strong ecological validity
  • overlook situational factors - not how life events contributed - in clients mind - nature over nurture - environmental reductionist - lack generalizability
  • An alternative approach in biological approach - genes and transmitters - Zhang low serotonin and gene 10 times more common in people with depression - reductionist - lack external validity - not scientific
92
Q

Evaluate the treatment of depression

A
  • research support - 90% success rate REBT - review found CBT was superior to no treatment - Ellis acknowledged therapy not always effective - variation in CBT outcomes - lacks pop validity
  • Individual differences - less suitable for people with high levels of irrational beliefs who are rigid and resistant to change - lack suitability - need compliance - lacks generalizability
  • Alternative treatments - drug therapies - don’t need to worry of demands of CBT - drug treatment enables easier to cope - research found CBT more effective if used along side drug therapy - lack ecologically validity - long term - no side effects
93
Q

Evaluate the explanations of OCD

A
  • real-world applications - COMT gene - screened eggs - chose to abort - ethics - some environmental - biologically reductionist - complex and controversial
  • Other disorders related to OCD - Tourettes syndrome OCD is one form of expression - same gene - also in autistic - 2/3 OCD experience at least one episode of depression - good ecological validity
  • alternative explanations - too reductionist - Obsessions learnt from avoiding anxiety-provoking stimuli - to reduce anxiety - 60-90% adults improved using ERP - psychological causes as well or instead of biological - reductionist - lack external validity
94
Q

Evaluate the treatment of OCD

A
  • Quickly address symptoms - SSRIs 2 days - BZs minutes - OCD patients highly impulsive - ethical benefit - of protection from harm - many OCD patients develop depression and suicide - many can take alongside CBT - strong ecological - ethical
  • harmful side effects - SSRO reduce cognitive acurity - diff concentration - BZs state of drunkenness - can’t drive - short term - interfere with everyday life
  • Relief from symptoms across a range of patients - no large financial code - CBT relied on skill and experience - expensive - if drugs stopped the symptoms return - cost-benefit. - CBT long term - coping mechanisms

AS level Psychology (8 decks)

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