7. Observational methods 1 - Sampling and Coding Protocols

Question 1

What are three occasions where observational methods might be used?
1. Questionnaires of l____ a____
2. A____ limits g____
3. C____-dependent behaviour where c____ might be difficult or infeasible to r____ in c____ environments

Answer 1

1. limited applicability (only humans can talk)
2. Apparatus, generalisability
3. Context, context, replicate, controlled

Question 2

Of 256 apparent pointing gestures observed in Leavens et al. (1996), only two were displayed in her absence of a human observer. The finding was interpreted to show that these alleged pointing gestures were not simply f____ attempts to r____ for the f____, but i____ c____ acts.

Answer 2

failed, reach, food, intentionally communicative acts

Question 3

Choosing measures involves:
1. Define the measures with either:
a) O____ definitions - specify the p____ requirements for coding a behaviour
b) O____ definitions - provide examples through p____ or d____, along with w____ descriptions of the behaviour of interest
2. Classify your measures as either:
a) E____
b) S____

Answer 3

a. Operational definitions: specify the physical
requirements for coding a behaviour (e.g., a lever press by a rat, a button press by a pigeon, or code a finger extension whenever one or more of a chimpanzee’s digits breaks the plane of the cage mesh), or
b. Ostensive definitions: provide examples through pictures or diagrams, along with written descriptions of the behaviour of interest (e.g., coordinated play versus solitary play).

a. Events (occurrences, usually, but not necessarily
of short duration—approximated as points in time), or
b. States (relatively long-duration events—such as
sleep or play)

Question 4

Ethograms:
1. In the past, ethogram was a list of f____ b____ r____ of a species
2. Sometimes the term is used to denote a q____ description of how much t____ an animal spends in each of its t____ a____
3. In recent years, ethogram is used to refer to both c____ b____ r____ and the c____ s____ used in specialised studies of a subset of a species’ or a group’s behaviour

Answer 4

1. full behavioural repertoire
2. quantitative, time, typical activities
3. complete behavioural repertoires, coding schemes

Question 5

Five examples of types of measures are:
1. L___
2. F___
3. R___
4. D____
5. P____

Answer 5

1. Latency
2. Frequency
3. Rate
4. Duration
5. Proportion

Question 6

Scales of measurement:
Non-p____ statistics:
1. N____ (categorical)
2. O____ (ranking)
P____ statistics:
1. I____ (0 is arbitrary)
2. R____-i____ (continuous)

Answer 6

non-parametric
nominal
ordinal
parametric
interval
ratio-interval

Question 7

Sampling rules specify which individual is samples:
1. A____ l____ - Preferred method for preliminary observations and for rare, but important events
Potential bias - tends to miss rare events of s____ d____ and underestimate the contribution of s____, less c____ subjects

Answer 7

1. Ad libitum, short duration, smaller, conspicuous

Question 8

Sampling rules specify which individual is samples:
2. F____ sampling - A specific individual (or dyad, or family, etc.) is isolated for observation
Potential bias - can be large if focus subject seeking p____ for some kinds of behaviours

Answer 8

2. Focal, privacy

Question 9

Sampling rules specify which individual is samples:
3. S____ sampling - A number of individuals (typically an entire group) is sampled (typically in rapid succession)
Potenial bias - as for ad libitum sampling, rare events of s____ d____ tend to be underestimated, while c____ events are overestimated

Answer 9

3. Scan, short duration, conspicuous

Question 10

Sampling rules specify which individual is samples:
4. B____ sampling (a.k.a. all-occurrences sampling)
Potential bias - overestimation of c____ events

Answer 10

4. Behaviour, conspicuous

Question 11

Recording rules specify how the behaviour is recorded:
1. T____ sampling (periodically samples behaviour):
a) I____ sampling
b) O____-z____ sampling
Potential bias - can underestimate rare behaviours of s____ d____

Answer 11

1. Time
   a) Instantaneous
   b) One-zero
   short duration

Question 12

Recording rules specify how the behaviour is recorded:
2. C____ recording (records absolute frequencies and durations of behaviour). High fidelity records, but usually means f____ c____ of behaviour can be p____ c____.
Potential bias - underestimate l____-d____ behaviours because these are more likely to be t____ by the end of the recording session

Answer 12

2. Continuous
   fewer categories, practically coded
   long-duration, truncated (shortened in duration)