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MCAT Psychology and Sociology Review > 6B: Making Sense of the Enviroment > Flashcards

6B: Making Sense of the Enviroment Flashcards

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1
Q

attention

A

refers to concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment, sensorium

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2
Q

selective attention

A

focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli, acts as filter

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3
Q

cocktail party phenomenon

A

while engaged in convo/paying attention, and you perceive that your name is being called

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4
Q

divided attention

A

ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time

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5
Q

controlled, effortful processing

A

most new or complex tasks require this type of undivided attention

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6
Q

automatic processing

A

familiar or routine tasks, permits brain to focus on other tasks with divided attention

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7
Q

cognition

A

looks at how our brains process and react to the incredible info overload presented to us by the world

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8
Q

information processing model

A

four key components:

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9
Q

cognitive developement

A

development of ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan

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10
Q

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

A

4 stages: SPCF

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11
Q

sensorimotor

A

first stage, 0-2 yrs, learn to manipulate his or her environment in order to meet physical needs, circular rxns start, development of object permanence

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12
Q

circular reactions (S phase)

A

repetitive behaviors, primary is body movement, secondary is focused on something outside the body

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13
Q

object permanence

A

understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view, marks beginning of representational thought

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14
Q

representational thought

A

child has begun to create mental representations of external objects/events

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15
Q

preoperational

A

2-7, symbolic thinking, egocentrism, centration

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16
Q

circular reactions (S phase)

A

…

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17
Q

egocentrism

A

inability to imagine what other person may think or feel

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18
Q

centration

A

tendency to focus on only one aspect of phenomenon, inability to understand conservation (go for slices of pizza vs. quantity)

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19
Q

concrete operational

A

7-11, understand conservation, consider perspectives of others, engage in logical thought, can’t think abstractly

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20
Q

formal operational

A

11+, think logically about abstract ideas, ability to reason about abstract concepts/problem solve

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21
Q

symbolic thinking

A

refers to ability to play pretend, make believe, imagination

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22
Q

adaptation

A

new info processed via this, two complementary processes: assimilation, accomodation

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23
Q

schema

A

organized patterns of behavior and thought, include concept (what is a dog?), behavior, seq. of events

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24
Q

assimilation

A

process of classifying new info in existing schema

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25
Q

accommodation

A

process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass new info

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26
Q

role of culture in cognitive development (3)

A
  1. Sociocultural perspective
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27
Q

Sociocultural perspective

A

How we develop, particularly how we learn and think, is primarily a function of the social and cultural environment in which an individual is reared

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28
Q

Lev Vygotsky

A

says engine driving cog dev is child’s internalization of her culture

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29
Q

fluid intelligence

A

consists of problem solving skills, peaks in early adulthood

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30
Q

crystallized intelligence

A

related to use of learned skills and knowledge, peaks in middle adulthood

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31
Q

dementia

A

begins with impaired memory, then impaired judgement and confusion, personality changes are common, loss of cog fxn, memory loss, atrophy of brain

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32
Q

delirium

A

rapid fluctuation in cog fxn that is reversible and caused by medical causes

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33
Q

heredity factors on cog dev (3)

A
  1. Certain genetic defects have a decrease in intelligence
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34
Q

Environmental effect on cognitive development (3)

A
  1. Severe malnutrition during pre/post natal decreases cognitive development
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35
Q

Biological factors affecting cognitive development (4)

A
  1. Sense organs
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36
Q

mental set

A

1st barrier to problem solving, potential solutions may be derived from a this, tendency to approach problems in the same way

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37
Q

functional fixedness

A

2nd barrier of problem solving, inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional way

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38
Q

confirmation bias

A

3rd, preferring info that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence

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39
Q

trial-and-error

A

less sophisticated, various solns tried until one works

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40
Q

algorithms

A

formula/procedure for solving certain type of problem

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41
Q

deductive reasoning

A

top down, starts from general rules, draws conclusions from info given

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42
Q

inductive reasoning

A

bottom up, seeks to create a theory via generalizations (specific instances and then conclusion)

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43
Q

heuristics

A

simplified principles used to make decision, rules of thumb

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44
Q

availability heuristics

A

4th, used when we try to decide how likely something is, we make decisions based on how easily similar instances can be imagined

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45
Q

representativeness heuristic

A

5th, involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit in prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of that category

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46
Q

base rate fallacy

A

using prototypical/stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical info

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47
Q

disconfirmation principle

A

evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work

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48
Q

overconfidence

A

tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, beliefs as infallible

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49
Q

multiple intelligences

A

seven defined types: linguistic, logical/math, musical, visual/spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal

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50
Q

intelligence quotient

A

used to measure intelligence, stanford binet IQ test. mental age/chronlogical age * 100, gifted is 130+

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51
Q

4 theories of intelligence

A

General Intelligence

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52
Q

General Intelligence

A

Intelligence is a general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed

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53
Q

3 factors composing triarchic theory

A
  1. Analytical intelligence
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54
Q

Analytical intelligence

A

Component of triarchic theory involved in problem solving

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55
Q

Creative intelligence

A

Component of triarchic theory involving the ability to deal with new situations using past experience and current skills

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56
Q

Practical intelligence

A

Component of triarchic theory referring to the ability to adapt to a changing environment

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57
Q

Heredity and Intelligence (3)

A
  1. Genetic markers on chromosomes 4, 6, 12
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58
Q

5 environmental influences on intelligence

A

Family

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59
Q

Significantly subaverage intellectual functioning that occurs with related limitations

A

Mental retardation

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60
Q

Causes of mental retardation

A

1/3 have biological cause

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61
Q

4 States of Consciousness

A

Alertness

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62
Q

alertness

A

awake and able to think, maintained by pre frontal cortex and reticular formation, beta waves

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63
Q

sleep

A

unconscious state, studied by recording EEG

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64
Q

beta waves

A

high freq, person is alert/attending to task, neurons are randomly firing

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65
Q

alpha waves

A

awake but relaxing with eyes closed, slower, more synchronized

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66
Q

stage 1

A

theta waves, irregular wave forms, slower freq, higher voltages

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67
Q

stage 2

A

sleep spindles, k complexes

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68
Q

stage 3 & 4

A

slow wave sleep, eeg activity slow, only few sleep waves per second, high voltage, low freq delta waves. 1-4 are NREM, declarative memory consolidation

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69
Q

REM sleep

A

arousal levels reach wakefulness, muscles paralyzed, dreaming occurs, memory consolidation, procedural memory consolidation

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70
Q

sleep cycle

A

refers to single complete progression through sleep stages

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71
Q

changes in sleep cycle (2)

A

over lifespan, length of sleep cycle increases from 50 min in children to 90 minutes in adults

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72
Q

circadian rhythms

A

interally generated rhythms that regulate daily cycle of waking and sleeping, approx. 24 hours

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73
Q

melatonin

A

seratonin derived hormone from pineal gland, retina connected to pineal gland that triggers release

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74
Q

cortisol

A

steroid hormone in adrenal cortex, related to sleep wake cycle, contributes to wakefulness

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75
Q

corticotropin releasing factor

A

released from hypothalamus bc of increasing light, causes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

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76
Q

adenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

A

anterior pituitary, stimulates cortisol release

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77
Q

dreaming

A

75% occurs in REM (longer/vivid), mental experience starts to shift to dreamlike state after stage 2

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78
Q

activation synthesis theory

A

dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry

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79
Q

problem-solving dream theory

A

dreams are way to solve problems while sleeping

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80
Q

cognitive process dream theory

A

merely sleeping counterpart of stream of consciousness

81
Q

neurocognitive models of dreaming

A

seek to unify bio and psych perspectives of dreaming by correlating the subject, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes

82
Q

sleep disorders

A

two types: dyssomnias & parasomnias, usually occur in NREM

83
Q

dyssomnias

A

disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, avoid sleep: insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea

84
Q

parasomnias

A

abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep: night terrors & sleepwalking

85
Q

insomnia

A

difficulty falling asleep/staying asleep, most common, related to anxiety, depression, medications, disruptions of sleep cycles/circadian rhythms

86
Q

narcolepsy

A

characterized by lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep

87
Q

cataplexy

A

loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours caused by emotional trigger

88
Q

sleep paralysis

A

sensation of being unable to move while being awake

89
Q

hypnagogic/hypnopmpic hallucinations

A

hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening

90
Q

sleep apnea

A

inability to breathe during sleep: obstructive - physical blockage in pharynx/trachea, central: occurs whn brain fails to send signals to diaphragm to breathe

91
Q

night terrors

A

periods of intense anxiety that occur during SWS, difficult to wake from/don’t remember in morning

92
Q

sleepwalking/sonambulism

A

SWS, no recollection of event

93
Q

sleep deprivation

A

little as one night w/o sleep or multiple nights with poor quality/short sleep

94
Q

REM rebound

A

earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal after deprivation

95
Q

hypnosis

A

state in which a person appears to be in control of his or her normal functions, but highly suggestible state

96
Q

hypnotic induction

A

hypnotists seeks to relax the subject and increase the subject’s level of concentration

97
Q

meditation

A

usually involves quieting of mind for spiritual, religious, or relayed to stress reduction reasons, stage 1 sleep waves - theta/alpha

98
Q

depressants

A

reduce nervous system activity, resulting in same sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety

99
Q

alcohol

A

increases GABA receptor (Cl channel that causes hyperpolarization of the membrane) causes brain inhibition, diminished arousal. increase dopamine level

100
Q

alcohol myopia

A

short sighted view of the world, inability to recognize consequences of actions

101
Q

Wernicker-Korsakoff Syndrome

A

caused by deficiency of thiamine (b1), memory impairment, changes in mental status, loss of motor skills, can be consequence of alc. marked by retrograde and anterograde amnesia, confabulation

102
Q

barbiturates

A

historically used as anxiety reducing and sleep meds (amobarbital, phenobarabital) replaced by benzodiazepines, both increase GABA activity (relaxation), highly addictive

103
Q

benzodiazepines

A

replace barbiturates, less prone to OD (alprazolam, lorazepam, diazepam, clonazepam)

104
Q

stimulants

A

causes increase in arousal in nervous system, increase freq of action potentials

105
Q

amphetamines

A

increased arousal by increasing release of dopamine, NE, serotonin at synapse, decrease reuptake. reduction in appetite, decreased need for sleep, inc heart rate/BP, euphoria, being on edge (hypervigilance), anxiety, delusions of grandeur, paranoia

106
Q

cocaine

A

coca plant, purified from leaves or created synthetically. dec. reuptake of dopa, NE, serotpnin by diff mechanism, anesthetic/vasoconstrictive props. crack is smoking form

107
Q

ecstasy (MDMA)

A

hallucinogen combined with amphetamine, inc heart rate, BP, blurry vision, sweating, nausea, hyperthermia, euphoria, alertness, sense of well being/connectedness

108
Q

opium

A

natural forms are opiates (morphine, codeine), semisynthetic derivatives are opioids (oxycodone, hydrocodone, heroin) decreased rxn to pain and sense of euphoria

109
Q

heroin

A

body metabolizes it to morphine

110
Q

hallucinogens

A

LSD, complex interaction between various NTs esp. serotonin. distortions of reality and fantasy, enhacement of sensory experience, introspection, inc heart rate/BP, dilation of pupils, sweating, inc body temp

111
Q

marijuana

A

active chemical is THC, act on cannabinoid receptors, glycine receps, opioid receps, THC increases GABA activity and dopamine

112
Q

drug addiction

A

related to mesolimbic reward pathway - one of 4 dopaminergic pathways.

113
Q

mesolimbic reward pathway

A

includes nucleus accumbens (NAc), ventral tegmental area (VTA), and connection between them is medial forebrain bundle (MFB). usually for motivation/emotional response but also positive reinforcement for drug use

114
Q

language

A

fundamental to creation of communities, communication

115
Q

phonology

A

actual sound of language

116
Q

phonemes

A

speech sounds in english (40)

117
Q

categorical distinction

A

ability to make distinction between what different speech sounds represent

118
Q

morphology

A

refers to structure of word

119
Q

morphemes

A

work building blocks that connote a meaning

120
Q

semantics

A

refers to association of meaning with a word

121
Q

syntax

A

refers to how words are put together to form sentences

122
Q

pragmatics

A

refers to dependence of language on context and pre existing knowledge

123
Q

prosody

A

the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of voices, affects pragmatics

124
Q

timeline of language acquistion

A

9-12mo: babbling

125
Q

errors of growth

A

child applies grammatical rule in situation where it doesn’t apply: runned

126
Q

Types of language development theories (3)

A

nativist (bio)

127
Q

nativist theory

A

Chomsky, advocates for existence of some innate capacity for lang

128
Q

transformational grammar

A

syntactic transformations, aka changes in word order that retain same meaning

129
Q

language acquistion device

A

innate ability for lang, theoretical pway in brain that allows infants to absorb/process lang rules

130
Q

critical period

A

for lang acquisition: 2yrs-puberty

131
Q

sensitive period

A

time when environmental input as maximal effect on development of ability. for lang: onset of puberty

132
Q

learning theory

A

Skinner, lang acquisition by operant conditioning

133
Q

reinforcement (in regards to LA)

A

parents/caregivers repeat and reinforce sounds that sound most like the language spoken by the parents/infants see that some sounds have little value bc not reinforced

134
Q

social interactionist theory

A

lang dev focuses on interplay between biological and social processes. driven by child’s desire to communicate and behave in social manner. allows for brain dev in acquisition of language

135
Q

Whorfian hypothesis

A

linguistic relativity hypothesis: suggests that our perception of reality is determined by the content of language

136
Q

Broca’s area

A

located in the inferior frontal gyrus of frontal lobe, left hemi, controls motor fxn of speech via cxns with motor cortex

137
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

located in superior temporal gyrus of temp lobe, left hemi, responsible for lang comprehension.

138
Q

arcuate fasciculus

A

connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s

139
Q

aphasia

A

deficit in lang production or comprehension

140
Q

Broca’s (expressive) aphasia

A

speech comprehension intact, but reduced/absent ability to produce spoken lang

141
Q

Wernicke’s (receptive) aphasia

A

motor production/fluency of speech retained, but comprehension is lost

142
Q

conduction aphasia

A

if arcuate fasiculus is affected, patient can’t repeat something that has been said

143
Q

memory

A

knowledge that we accumulate over our lifetime

144
Q

encoding

A

process of putting new info into memory

145
Q

automatic processing (Memory)

A

info gained without effort

146
Q

controlled (effortful) processing (memory)

A

when one actively works to gain info

147
Q

visual encoding

A

storing how information looks

148
Q

acoustic encoding

A

store the way it sounds

149
Q

semantic encoding

A

put it into meaningful context

150
Q

self reference phenomenon

A

we best recall info when we put it into the context of our own lives

151
Q

maintenance rehearsal

A

repetition of info to keep it within working mem or store it into short term then long term mem

152
Q

mnemonics

A

acronyms/rhyming phrases that provide vivid organization of info we are trying to remember

153
Q

method of loci

A

involves associating each item in the list with location along a route through a building that is already memorized

154
Q

peg-word

A

associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers

155
Q

chunking

A

involves taking individual elements of large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning

156
Q

sensory memory

A

most fleeting, first kind includes iconic and echoic

157
Q

iconic memory

A

visual

158
Q

echoic memory

A

AUDITORY

159
Q

short-term memory

A

fades quickly, over course of 30 sec without rehearsal

160
Q

7 +/- 2 rule

A

capacity of short term memory is approx. 7 items

161
Q

working memory

A

closely related to short-term memory, enables us to keep a few pieces of info in consciousness simultaneously and manipulate that info. one must integrate short term mem, attention and exec fxn to do this

162
Q

long-term memory

A

w/ enough rehearsal, info moves from short to long term mem. limitless warehouse for knowledge that we are able to recall on demand

163
Q

elaborative rehearsal

A

closely tied to self reference effect, ideas that relate to our own lives are more likely to get in LTM

164
Q

implicit (nondeclarative/procedural) memory

A

consists of skills and conditioned responses. unconsciousretrie

165
Q

explicit (declarative) memory

A

mems that require conscious recall, two parts: semantic, episodic

166
Q

semantic memory

A

facts that we know

167
Q

episodic memory

A

experiences

168
Q

retrieval

A

process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained

169
Q

recall

A

retrieval and statement of previously learned info

170
Q

recognition

A

process of identifying a piece of info that was previously learned, easier than recall

171
Q

relearning

A

demonstrates that info has been stored in LTM

172
Q

spacing effect

A

longer amt of time between session of relearning, the greater the retention

173
Q

semantic network

A

brain idea organization; concepts linked together based on similar meaning

174
Q

spreading activation

A

one node of semantic network activated, the other linked concepts around it are also unconsciously activated

175
Q

priming

A

recall is aided by first being presented a word or phrase that is close to the desire semantic memory

176
Q

context effects

A

common retrieval cue, memory aided by being in physical location where encoding took place

177
Q

state-dependent memory

A

person’s mental state can also affect recall. drunk people who learned something while drunk, recall better while drunk

178
Q

serial position effect

A

retrieval cue with lists, participants have higher recall for first few and last few items on the list (primacy and recency) after long time, first few items is strong, last few fade

179
Q

forgetting

A

loss of memorized info

180
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A

degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to hippocampus. neurofibrillary tangles/beta amyloid plaques. retrograde

181
Q

sundowing

A

increase in dysfunction in late afternoon/evening

182
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

loss of previous formed memories

183
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

inability to form new memories

184
Q

confabulation

A

process of creating vivid but fabricated memories

185
Q

agnosia

A

loss of ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds

186
Q

decay

A

often memories simply lost naturally over time as neurochemical trace of STM fades

187
Q

interference

A

retrieval error caused by existence of other info

188
Q

proactive interference

A

old info interfering with new learning

189
Q

retroactive interference

A

new info causes forgetting of old info

190
Q

aging

A

doesn’t lead to significant memory loss. semantically meaningful info still strong in elderly.

191
Q

prospective memory

A

remembering to perform a task at some point in the future, intact with age. but time based declines

192
Q

false memories

A

memories that are fabricated and did not occur

193
Q

misinformation effect

A

how outside sources effect memory, misinfo can alter recall/how you remember

194
Q

source amnesia

A

involving confusion between semantic and episodic memory, person remembers the details of an event but confuses context under which details were gained

195
Q

neuroplasticity

A

neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli, why brain reorganizes drastically in response to injury.

196
Q

plasticity (in regard to learning and memory)

A

related closely to learning and memory because as stimuli activate neurons and NTs are released, this neural activity forms a memory trace that causes short term memory

197
Q

synaptic pruning

A

weak connections broken, strong neural cxns are bolstered. increases efficiency of out brain’s ability to process info

198
Q

long term potentiation

A

as stimulus is repeated (rehearsal) the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their NTs and at the same time receptor sites on other side of synapses increase (inc. receptor density). neurophysiological basis of LTM

MCAT Psychology and Sociology Review (5 decks)

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