6B: Making Sense of the Enviroment Flashcards
attention
refers to concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment, sensorium
selective attention
focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli, acts as filter
cocktail party phenomenon
while engaged in convo/paying attention, and you perceive that your name is being called
divided attention
ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time
controlled, effortful processing
most new or complex tasks require this type of undivided attention
automatic processing
familiar or routine tasks, permits brain to focus on other tasks with divided attention
cognition
looks at how our brains process and react to the incredible info overload presented to us by the world
information processing model
four key components:
cognitive developement
development of ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
4 stages: SPCF
sensorimotor
first stage, 0-2 yrs, learn to manipulate his or her environment in order to meet physical needs, circular rxns start, development of object permanence
circular reactions (S phase)
repetitive behaviors, primary is body movement, secondary is focused on something outside the body
object permanence
understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view, marks beginning of representational thought
representational thought
child has begun to create mental representations of external objects/events
preoperational
2-7, symbolic thinking, egocentrism, centration
circular reactions (S phase)
…
egocentrism
inability to imagine what other person may think or feel
centration
tendency to focus on only one aspect of phenomenon, inability to understand conservation (go for slices of pizza vs. quantity)
concrete operational
7-11, understand conservation, consider perspectives of others, engage in logical thought, can’t think abstractly
formal operational
11+, think logically about abstract ideas, ability to reason about abstract concepts/problem solve
symbolic thinking
refers to ability to play pretend, make believe, imagination
adaptation
new info processed via this, two complementary processes: assimilation, accomodation
schema
organized patterns of behavior and thought, include concept (what is a dog?), behavior, seq. of events
assimilation
process of classifying new info in existing schema
accommodation
process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass new info
role of culture in cognitive development (3)
- Sociocultural perspective
Sociocultural perspective
How we develop, particularly how we learn and think, is primarily a function of the social and cultural environment in which an individual is reared
Lev Vygotsky
says engine driving cog dev is child’s internalization of her culture
fluid intelligence
consists of problem solving skills, peaks in early adulthood
crystallized intelligence
related to use of learned skills and knowledge, peaks in middle adulthood
dementia
begins with impaired memory, then impaired judgement and confusion, personality changes are common, loss of cog fxn, memory loss, atrophy of brain
delirium
rapid fluctuation in cog fxn that is reversible and caused by medical causes
heredity factors on cog dev (3)
- Certain genetic defects have a decrease in intelligence
Environmental effect on cognitive development (3)
- Severe malnutrition during pre/post natal decreases cognitive development
Biological factors affecting cognitive development (4)
- Sense organs
mental set
1st barrier to problem solving, potential solutions may be derived from a this, tendency to approach problems in the same way
functional fixedness
2nd barrier of problem solving, inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional way
confirmation bias
3rd, preferring info that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence
trial-and-error
less sophisticated, various solns tried until one works
algorithms
formula/procedure for solving certain type of problem
deductive reasoning
top down, starts from general rules, draws conclusions from info given
inductive reasoning
bottom up, seeks to create a theory via generalizations (specific instances and then conclusion)
heuristics
simplified principles used to make decision, rules of thumb
availability heuristics
4th, used when we try to decide how likely something is, we make decisions based on how easily similar instances can be imagined
representativeness heuristic
5th, involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit in prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of that category
base rate fallacy
using prototypical/stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical info
disconfirmation principle
evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work
overconfidence
tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, beliefs as infallible
multiple intelligences
seven defined types: linguistic, logical/math, musical, visual/spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal
intelligence quotient
used to measure intelligence, stanford binet IQ test. mental age/chronlogical age * 100, gifted is 130+
4 theories of intelligence
General Intelligence
General Intelligence
Intelligence is a general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed
3 factors composing triarchic theory
- Analytical intelligence
Analytical intelligence
Component of triarchic theory involved in problem solving
Creative intelligence
Component of triarchic theory involving the ability to deal with new situations using past experience and current skills
Practical intelligence
Component of triarchic theory referring to the ability to adapt to a changing environment
Heredity and Intelligence (3)
- Genetic markers on chromosomes 4, 6, 12
5 environmental influences on intelligence
Family
Significantly subaverage intellectual functioning that occurs with related limitations
Mental retardation
Causes of mental retardation
1/3 have biological cause
4 States of Consciousness
Alertness
alertness
awake and able to think, maintained by pre frontal cortex and reticular formation, beta waves
sleep
unconscious state, studied by recording EEG
beta waves
high freq, person is alert/attending to task, neurons are randomly firing
alpha waves
awake but relaxing with eyes closed, slower, more synchronized
stage 1
theta waves, irregular wave forms, slower freq, higher voltages
stage 2
sleep spindles, k complexes
stage 3 & 4
slow wave sleep, eeg activity slow, only few sleep waves per second, high voltage, low freq delta waves. 1-4 are NREM, declarative memory consolidation
REM sleep
arousal levels reach wakefulness, muscles paralyzed, dreaming occurs, memory consolidation, procedural memory consolidation
sleep cycle
refers to single complete progression through sleep stages
changes in sleep cycle (2)
over lifespan, length of sleep cycle increases from 50 min in children to 90 minutes in adults
circadian rhythms
interally generated rhythms that regulate daily cycle of waking and sleeping, approx. 24 hours
melatonin
seratonin derived hormone from pineal gland, retina connected to pineal gland that triggers release
cortisol
steroid hormone in adrenal cortex, related to sleep wake cycle, contributes to wakefulness
corticotropin releasing factor
released from hypothalamus bc of increasing light, causes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
adenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
anterior pituitary, stimulates cortisol release
dreaming
75% occurs in REM (longer/vivid), mental experience starts to shift to dreamlike state after stage 2
activation synthesis theory
dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry
problem-solving dream theory
dreams are way to solve problems while sleeping
cognitive process dream theory
merely sleeping counterpart of stream of consciousness
neurocognitive models of dreaming
seek to unify bio and psych perspectives of dreaming by correlating the subject, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes
sleep disorders
two types: dyssomnias & parasomnias, usually occur in NREM
dyssomnias
disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, avoid sleep: insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea
parasomnias
abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep: night terrors & sleepwalking
insomnia
difficulty falling asleep/staying asleep, most common, related to anxiety, depression, medications, disruptions of sleep cycles/circadian rhythms
narcolepsy
characterized by lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep
cataplexy
loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours caused by emotional trigger
sleep paralysis
sensation of being unable to move while being awake
hypnagogic/hypnopmpic hallucinations
hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening
sleep apnea
inability to breathe during sleep: obstructive - physical blockage in pharynx/trachea, central: occurs whn brain fails to send signals to diaphragm to breathe
night terrors
periods of intense anxiety that occur during SWS, difficult to wake from/don’t remember in morning
sleepwalking/sonambulism
SWS, no recollection of event
sleep deprivation
little as one night w/o sleep or multiple nights with poor quality/short sleep
REM rebound
earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal after deprivation
hypnosis
state in which a person appears to be in control of his or her normal functions, but highly suggestible state
hypnotic induction
hypnotists seeks to relax the subject and increase the subject’s level of concentration
meditation
usually involves quieting of mind for spiritual, religious, or relayed to stress reduction reasons, stage 1 sleep waves - theta/alpha
depressants
reduce nervous system activity, resulting in same sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety
alcohol
increases GABA receptor (Cl channel that causes hyperpolarization of the membrane) causes brain inhibition, diminished arousal. increase dopamine level
alcohol myopia
short sighted view of the world, inability to recognize consequences of actions
Wernicker-Korsakoff Syndrome
caused by deficiency of thiamine (b1), memory impairment, changes in mental status, loss of motor skills, can be consequence of alc. marked by retrograde and anterograde amnesia, confabulation
barbiturates
historically used as anxiety reducing and sleep meds (amobarbital, phenobarabital) replaced by benzodiazepines, both increase GABA activity (relaxation), highly addictive
benzodiazepines
replace barbiturates, less prone to OD (alprazolam, lorazepam, diazepam, clonazepam)
stimulants
causes increase in arousal in nervous system, increase freq of action potentials
amphetamines
increased arousal by increasing release of dopamine, NE, serotonin at synapse, decrease reuptake. reduction in appetite, decreased need for sleep, inc heart rate/BP, euphoria, being on edge (hypervigilance), anxiety, delusions of grandeur, paranoia
cocaine
coca plant, purified from leaves or created synthetically. dec. reuptake of dopa, NE, serotpnin by diff mechanism, anesthetic/vasoconstrictive props. crack is smoking form
ecstasy (MDMA)
hallucinogen combined with amphetamine, inc heart rate, BP, blurry vision, sweating, nausea, hyperthermia, euphoria, alertness, sense of well being/connectedness
opium
natural forms are opiates (morphine, codeine), semisynthetic derivatives are opioids (oxycodone, hydrocodone, heroin) decreased rxn to pain and sense of euphoria
heroin
body metabolizes it to morphine
hallucinogens
LSD, complex interaction between various NTs esp. serotonin. distortions of reality and fantasy, enhacement of sensory experience, introspection, inc heart rate/BP, dilation of pupils, sweating, inc body temp
marijuana
active chemical is THC, act on cannabinoid receptors, glycine receps, opioid receps, THC increases GABA activity and dopamine
drug addiction
related to mesolimbic reward pathway - one of 4 dopaminergic pathways.
mesolimbic reward pathway
includes nucleus accumbens (NAc), ventral tegmental area (VTA), and connection between them is medial forebrain bundle (MFB). usually for motivation/emotional response but also positive reinforcement for drug use
language
fundamental to creation of communities, communication
phonology
actual sound of language
phonemes
speech sounds in english (40)
categorical distinction
ability to make distinction between what different speech sounds represent
morphology
refers to structure of word
morphemes
work building blocks that connote a meaning
semantics
refers to association of meaning with a word
syntax
refers to how words are put together to form sentences
pragmatics
refers to dependence of language on context and pre existing knowledge
prosody
the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of voices, affects pragmatics
timeline of language acquistion
9-12mo: babbling
errors of growth
child applies grammatical rule in situation where it doesn’t apply: runned
Types of language development theories (3)
nativist (bio)
nativist theory
Chomsky, advocates for existence of some innate capacity for lang
transformational grammar
syntactic transformations, aka changes in word order that retain same meaning
language acquistion device
innate ability for lang, theoretical pway in brain that allows infants to absorb/process lang rules
critical period
for lang acquisition: 2yrs-puberty
sensitive period
time when environmental input as maximal effect on development of ability. for lang: onset of puberty
learning theory
Skinner, lang acquisition by operant conditioning
reinforcement (in regards to LA)
parents/caregivers repeat and reinforce sounds that sound most like the language spoken by the parents/infants see that some sounds have little value bc not reinforced
social interactionist theory
lang dev focuses on interplay between biological and social processes. driven by child’s desire to communicate and behave in social manner. allows for brain dev in acquisition of language
Whorfian hypothesis
linguistic relativity hypothesis: suggests that our perception of reality is determined by the content of language
Broca’s area
located in the inferior frontal gyrus of frontal lobe, left hemi, controls motor fxn of speech via cxns with motor cortex
Wernicke’s area
located in superior temporal gyrus of temp lobe, left hemi, responsible for lang comprehension.
arcuate fasciculus
connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s
aphasia
deficit in lang production or comprehension
Broca’s (expressive) aphasia
speech comprehension intact, but reduced/absent ability to produce spoken lang
Wernicke’s (receptive) aphasia
motor production/fluency of speech retained, but comprehension is lost
conduction aphasia
if arcuate fasiculus is affected, patient can’t repeat something that has been said
memory
knowledge that we accumulate over our lifetime
encoding
process of putting new info into memory
automatic processing (Memory)
info gained without effort
controlled (effortful) processing (memory)
when one actively works to gain info
visual encoding
storing how information looks
acoustic encoding
store the way it sounds
semantic encoding
put it into meaningful context
self reference phenomenon
we best recall info when we put it into the context of our own lives
maintenance rehearsal
repetition of info to keep it within working mem or store it into short term then long term mem
mnemonics
acronyms/rhyming phrases that provide vivid organization of info we are trying to remember
method of loci
involves associating each item in the list with location along a route through a building that is already memorized
peg-word
associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers
chunking
involves taking individual elements of large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning
sensory memory
most fleeting, first kind includes iconic and echoic
iconic memory
visual
echoic memory
AUDITORY
short-term memory
fades quickly, over course of 30 sec without rehearsal
7 +/- 2 rule
capacity of short term memory is approx. 7 items
working memory
closely related to short-term memory, enables us to keep a few pieces of info in consciousness simultaneously and manipulate that info. one must integrate short term mem, attention and exec fxn to do this
long-term memory
w/ enough rehearsal, info moves from short to long term mem. limitless warehouse for knowledge that we are able to recall on demand
elaborative rehearsal
closely tied to self reference effect, ideas that relate to our own lives are more likely to get in LTM
implicit (nondeclarative/procedural) memory
consists of skills and conditioned responses. unconsciousretrie
explicit (declarative) memory
mems that require conscious recall, two parts: semantic, episodic
semantic memory
facts that we know
episodic memory
experiences
retrieval
process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained
recall
retrieval and statement of previously learned info
recognition
process of identifying a piece of info that was previously learned, easier than recall
relearning
demonstrates that info has been stored in LTM
spacing effect
longer amt of time between session of relearning, the greater the retention
semantic network
brain idea organization; concepts linked together based on similar meaning
spreading activation
one node of semantic network activated, the other linked concepts around it are also unconsciously activated
priming
recall is aided by first being presented a word or phrase that is close to the desire semantic memory
context effects
common retrieval cue, memory aided by being in physical location where encoding took place
state-dependent memory
person’s mental state can also affect recall. drunk people who learned something while drunk, recall better while drunk
serial position effect
retrieval cue with lists, participants have higher recall for first few and last few items on the list (primacy and recency) after long time, first few items is strong, last few fade
forgetting
loss of memorized info
Alzheimer’s disease
degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to hippocampus. neurofibrillary tangles/beta amyloid plaques. retrograde
sundowing
increase in dysfunction in late afternoon/evening
retrograde amnesia
loss of previous formed memories
anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories
confabulation
process of creating vivid but fabricated memories
agnosia
loss of ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds
decay
often memories simply lost naturally over time as neurochemical trace of STM fades
interference
retrieval error caused by existence of other info
proactive interference
old info interfering with new learning
retroactive interference
new info causes forgetting of old info
aging
doesn’t lead to significant memory loss. semantically meaningful info still strong in elderly.
prospective memory
remembering to perform a task at some point in the future, intact with age. but time based declines
false memories
memories that are fabricated and did not occur
misinformation effect
how outside sources effect memory, misinfo can alter recall/how you remember
source amnesia
involving confusion between semantic and episodic memory, person remembers the details of an event but confuses context under which details were gained
neuroplasticity
neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli, why brain reorganizes drastically in response to injury.
plasticity (in regard to learning and memory)
related closely to learning and memory because as stimuli activate neurons and NTs are released, this neural activity forms a memory trace that causes short term memory
synaptic pruning
weak connections broken, strong neural cxns are bolstered. increases efficiency of out brain’s ability to process info
long term potentiation
as stimulus is repeated (rehearsal) the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their NTs and at the same time receptor sites on other side of synapses increase (inc. receptor density). neurophysiological basis of LTM
