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Biology A level > 6.2.1 - Cloning and biotech > Flashcards

6.2.1 - Cloning and biotech Flashcards

1
Q

Clones

A

Carry identical genetic material because they are derived from the same orig. DNA

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2
Q

Cloning

A

Process of producing genetically identical cells or organisms from the cells of existing organisms through nonsexual means

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3
Q

Examples of processes that form genetically identical organisms

A

Mitosis
Binary fission (bacteria)
Budding (yeast)

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4
Q

Natural plant cloning

A

Vegetative propagation through runners or suckering

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5
Q

Artificial plant cloning

A

Artificial vegetative propagation through cuttings or micropropagation (tissue culture)

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6
Q

Vegetative propagation

A

Ability of plants to reproduce w/out sexual reproduction by producing new plants from existing vegetative structures

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7
Q

Vegetative structures

A

Non-reproductive tissues e.g. roots, leaves and stems

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8
Q

Cuttings

A

Cut stem 1/4 “ below internode at 45-60 degrees
Treat cut end w/ rooting hormones
Cover in clear plastic bag
Transfer to another growing medium

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9
Q

Why do you cover cuttings w/ a clear plastic bag

A

To keep it moist and warm

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10
Q

Explant

A

A small piece of tissue

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11
Q

Callus

A

Undifferentiated mass of tissue containing totipotent cells

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12
Q

Micropropagation

A

Cut out explant from vegetative structures (leaf)
Sterilise explant w. alcohol
Place explant in sterile agar w/ glucose, cytokinins and auxins
Subdivide callus and place on growth medium to induce root growth (prepares plant for transplanting)
Transferred to greenhouse to acclimatise before being planted outside

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13
Q

Advantages of artificial plant cloning

A

Can produce large no. v. quickly
Can grow plants that dont reproduce easily
No need to wait for seed production
Reproduce sterile plant

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14
Q

Disadvantages of artificial plant cloning

A

Labour intensive and requires skilled workers
Trial and error to find ideal conditions for growth
Undesirable traits also passed on
Can fail to microbial contamination

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15
Q

Runners

A

Side stem grows out from bud at the base of the main stem

Creates new bud and grows a vertical stem

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16
Q

Suckering

A

Grow from shallow roots from buds that are normally dormant
Duing times of stress, buds are activated and suckers form many metres away from parents tree (to avoid stress that triggered growth)
Eventually form clonal patch of new trees
Trees in clonal patch put out new sucker buds

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17
Q

Advantages of natural plant cloning

A

Large colonies can form quickly

Allows species to survive catastrophic events

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18
Q

Disadvantages of natural plant coning

A

No natural selection

Susceptible to gentic disease; no variation

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19
Q

Runners vs. suckers

A

Runners are overground and suckers are underground

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20
Q

Why must the agar used in micropropagation be sterile

A

Prevents infection

Competition of resources e.g. oxygen/nutrients if other organisms e.g bacteria and fungi are present

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21
Q

Somatic cell

A

Biological cell forming the body of an organism

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22
Q

Germline cell

A

Biological cell that gives rise to the gametes of an organism that reproduces sexually

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23
Q

Natural animal reproductive cloning

A

Some animals can regenerate entire animals from fragments of the orig. (starfish)
Others fragment and form new identical animals as part of their normal reproductive process (flatworms and sponges)
MZ twins form when an early embryo splits and and two foetuses develop from two halves

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24
Q

Artificial animal reproductive cloning

A

Somatic cell nuclear transfer

Artificial twinning

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25
Somatic cell nuclear transfer
Extract nucleus from somatic cell from Sheep A Remove nucleus from egg cell from Sheep B Insert nucleus from A into innoculated egg(electrofusion) Stimulates to divide in vitro and implant embryo into sheep C
26
Artificial embryo twinning
Get fertilised egg and allow to divide until 16 cell stage Harvest embryo and split into smaller ones manually Implant into surrogate mothers which give birth to identical high quality animals
27
Advantages of artifical animal cloning
Produce identical clones w/ desirable traits Stem cell research Clones so offspring can be produced all year round
28
Disadvantages of artificial animal cloning
Difficult and time consuming Destruction of embryos unethical Clones have shorter life expectancies No genetic identity so selection pressures affects all
29
Similarities between AT and SCNT
``` Produce clones Both have surrogates Divides by mitosis Unnateral Expensive ```
30
Differences between AT and SCNT
AT forms several clones at once Gametes meet outside the body is AT SCNT involves only maternal DNA No fertilisation in SCNT
31
Biotechnology
Industrial exploitation of living micro-organisms (or parts of them) and biological process to produce useful substances for human use
32
Why are microorganisms used in biotech
Easy/ not labour intensive Obtain pure products if aseptic technique is followed Can be easily genetically enginerred to produce spp products Short life cycle Simple requirements for growth - can be left w/ little intervention Can be grown v. quickly Can be grown on waste material from other processes
33
Use of microorganism in biological processes
``` Brewing - anaerobic respiration of yeast Baking - yeast Cheese making - bacteria and rennin Penicillin production - fermentation by fungus Insulin production - GM bacteria Bioremediation ```
34
Bioremediation
Using microorganisms to clean up pollution | Convert toxic pollutants to less harmful substances
35
Advantages of bioremediation
``` Uses natural systems Less labour and equipment required Treatment can be carried out on site Few waste products produced Less risk of harmful exposure to clean-up personnel ```
36
Culturing microorganisms
Sterilisation - Sterilising equipment in an autoclave (15 mins at 121 degrees) Inoculation - Introducing a sample of microorganisms to the growth medium Incubation - Place in a warm environment and place agar plate upside down (condensation)
37
Types of growth medium
Agar jelly in a petri dish | Nutrient broth in a bijoux bottle
38
Standard procedure of aseptic techniques
Wash hands thoroughly Disinfect working area Light and keep Bunsen burner on Flame neck of bottle before and after taking sample Lift lid of petri dish slightly to introduce microbe by streaking Close petri dish and tape (not completely) Flame all equipment after use Wash hands again
39
Why do you keep the Bunsen burner on during aseptic procedures
Heats the air, causing it to rise so air-borne microbes don't settle
40
Why cant you seal the petri dish completely
Introduces O2 for aerobic respiration | Doesn't introduce harmful anaerobically respiration organism
41
Continuous culture
Culture is set up and nutrients are added and products removed from the culture at intervals - done at same rate to keep vol constant Culture is maintained at exponential growth phase - grows and produces metabolites faster
42
Metabolites
Substances produced by living organisms in order to survive e.g ATP synthase
43
Batch culture
A starter population of the microorganism is given a fixed amount of nutrients and at the end of the time period products are extracted
44
Examples of continuous culture
Insulin | Single-cell protein (from Fusarium)
45
Examples of batch culture
Wine Beer Yogurt
46
Advantages of continuous culture
Fermenter is always in use - increases efficiency High growth rate as nutrient levels maintained Useful for primary metabolites
47
Disadvantages of continuous culture
Contamination is more likely Difficult to maintain and control product consistency In cases of contamination losses are great and all production halts
48
Advantages of batch culture
Less likelihood of contamination Can be left for a set time period Useful for secondary metabolites In the event of contamination, only one batch is lost
49
Disadvantage of batch culture
Fermenter isn't in use constantly - less efficient | Time spent cleaning
50
Primary metabolites
Produced in the course of normal metabolism e.g. proteins, enzymes, alcohol Produced in lag and log phase
51
Secondary metabolites
Produced after main population growth has occurred, nutrients are in short supply and population isn't growing rapidly Produced in stationary and death phase
52
How do fermenters maximise the yield
Tube for sterile air to provide oxygen for aerobic reactions Sparger - diffuses air through culture medium Powerful motors - mixes contents ensuring equal distribution of nutrients and so microbes don't settle at base of fermenter Acid-base injection site - controls pH Culture broth - contains sources of carbon and nitrogen (NH3) and vitamins/minerals Jacket - filled with hot/cold water to provide optimum temp as respiration releases heat (denaturing)
53
Asepsis in fermenters
Washing. disinfecting and steam cleaning all equipment Using fermenter made of polished stainless steel so microbes cant stick Sterilising all nutrients w/ steam or heat Only bubbling in sterile air- v. fine filters
54
Phases in microorganim growth curves (bacteria/fungi)
Lag Exponential Stationary Death
55
Lag phase
Reproduction v. slow as cells acclimitase, absorb nutrients Gene expresion for spp enzymes Synthesis of enzymes and organelles
56
Exponential phase
Reproduction is rapid No limiting conditions Few cells die
57
Stationary phase
Population remains constant as death and reproduction rates are the same
58
Death phase
Lack of resources | Build up of CO2 - fatal
59
Culture
A method of multiplying microbial organisms by letting them reproduce in predetermined culture medium under controlled lab conditions
60
Isolated enzymes
Taking enzymes out of microorganism
61
Issue w/ isolated enzymes
Product must be seperated from enzymes and extraction is v. expensive
62
Immobilised enzyme
Enzymes fixed to a surface and do not freely mix w/ the substrate
63
Ways to immobilise enzymes
Covalent bonding Encapsulation Adsorption Entrapment
64
Covalent bonding to immobilise enzymes
Covalently bonded to a supporting surface | Enzymes are also covalently bonded together using a cross-linking agent
65
Adsorption
Bound to supporting surface by a combination of hydrophobic interactions and ionic links Bound w/ active site exposed and accessible to substrate
66
Entrapment
Trapped in a matrix (often calcium alginate beads) that doesn’t allow free movement
67
Encapsulation/membane separation
Separated from reaction mixture by a small permeable membrane - microcapsule
68
A vs D of adsorption
Simple and cheap Can be used in a variety of processes Enzymes v. accessible May distort active site Enzymes can detach and leak into reaction mixture
69
A vs D of covalent bonding
Enzyme less likely to become detached pH and substrate conc have little effet on enzyme activty Accessible to substrate Expensive Can distort active site, reducing activity
70
A vs D of encapsulation
Relatively simple Relatively small effect on enzyme activity Widely apllicable to diff processes Expensive Substrate and product has to be small in order to diffuse through partially permeabe membrane Diffusion is slow
71
A vs D of entrapment
Widely applicable to diff processes May be expensive Difficult to entrap Effect of entrapment on enzyme activity dpends on the matrix Substrate and product needs to be small
72
Examples of immobilised enzymes
``` Glucose isomerase Penicillin acylase Lactase Aminoacylase Glucoamylase Nitrile hydratase ```
73
Penicillin acylase
Converts naturally produced penicillins to semi-synthetic penicillins Some resistant microorganims arent resistant to semi-synthetic penicillins
74
Glucose isomerase
V. commonly use to produce HFCS, sweeter than sucrose and can be used in diet fods Glucose ---> fructose
75
Lactase
Hyrolyses lactose into glucose and galactose so lactose-intlerant people can drink milk and reduce the risks of developing osteoporosis as a lack of calcium
76
Aminoacylase
N-acyl-amino acids ---> pure sample of L-amino acids | Used in synthesising pharmaceutical compounds
77
Glucoamylase
Dextrins ---> glucose | Immobilised and used to digest sources of starch e.g. corn and cassava
78
Nitrile hydratase
Nitriles ---> amides Acrylamide can be polymerised to form a plastic and a gel for electrophoresis Used to treat water, helps to stick many small contaminanrts together so they can be filtered out
79
Supporting surfaces
Glass Porous carbon Clay
80
Advantages of immobilising enzymes
Lowers temp required No contamination of end product Reusable Protected by immobilisng matrix so high temp or extreme pH has no effect
81
Disadvanages of immobilising enzymes
Expensive to set up Bonding may affect active site Contamination is v. costly as whole system needs to stop Slower process as enzymes and substrates don't mix freely
82
Making yoghurt
Milk is fermented by bacteria Lactose---> lactic acid Low pH denatures caesin, causing milk to coagulate and thicknes Also adds flavour
83
Makng cheese
Milk is fermented by bacteria Lactose --> lactic acid, acidifies milk Rennin coagulates caesin in the presence of Ca2+ Resulted curd separates from liquid whey by curdling, stirring and heating
84
Microorganisms in baking
Flour is mxed w. water, salt and yeast | Respires anaerobically and produces CO2 bubbles, causing the dough to rise
85
Making wine
Grapes have yeast on the surface | When crushed uses glucose and fructose to respire and produce CO2 and alcohol
86
Making beer
Uses malted barley grains that are beginning to germinate Stored starch to maltose, respiratory substrate for yeast Produces CO2 and alcohol
87
Making penicillin
Fermentation of fungus as a batch culture for 6-8 days Secondary metabolite Once fermentation is complete, culture is filtered to remove cells Antibiotics precipitated and purified
88
Making insulin
Genetic modification of bacteria | Grown in fermenters, continuous culture
89
Why is the Sheep C treated w/ hormones
Increase thickness and vascularisation of uterine lining
90
How can SCNT help save endangered species
Doesn't require fertile females Female not put at risk during mating Can subdivide successfully formed embryo
91
Economic advantages of immobilising enzymes
Reusable so less money required | Higher temp means profit from faster yield

Biology A level (32 decks)

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