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Anatomy 6511 Exam One Material > Histology and Cytology > Flashcards

Histology and Cytology Flashcards

1
Q

What is histology?

A

microscopic division of Anatomy

the study of the TISSUEs of the body
-now used to encompass cytology and organology as well

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2
Q

What is cytology?

A

study of the cells of the body

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3
Q

What are the four types of tissue studied in histology?

A

epithelial tissue (epithelium)
muscle tissue
connective tissue
nervous tissue

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4
Q

define a tissue

A

group of similar cells with common function, also ECM

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5
Q

list the levels of structural organization

A

chemical > cellular > tissue > organ > organ system > organismal

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6
Q

epithelial tissue

A

covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs, body cavities and ducts and glands

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7
Q

connective tissue

A

diverse, protect and support body

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8
Q

muscle tissue

A

contractile, makes force

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9
Q

nervous tissue

A

detect stimuli and generate action potentials and nerve impulses

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10
Q

Light Microscopy

A

Specimens examined via transillumination (i.e., passing light through the specimen to facilitate observation)

Steps: 
1. Acquisition of Cells or Tissues
2. Fixation
3. Processing
Dehydration – using a graded series of alcohol
Clearing – using a miscible substance
 Infiltration – using a liquid embedding medium
4. Embedding
5. Sectioning
6. Staining

-pink images

takes a lot of time, can lose components
or get contaminants in slide prep, has to be incredibly thin (7-10 micrometers)

fixative: stop metabolism and bacteria/viruses/fungi, harden tissue (12 hours in fixative)

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11
Q

Electron Microscopy

A

Provides:
Greater Resolution
Higher Magnification

Two Types:
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

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12
Q

Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)

A

uses a beam of electrons that passes through the specimen

higher magnification
greater resolution

black and white on images

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13
Q

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

A

beam of electrons scans the surface of the specimen

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14
Q

Atomic Force Microscopy

A

AFM

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15
Q

How is resolving power (resolution) defined? How does it compare between the three microscope types and the human eye?

A

Defined as how far two objects must be separated from one another so that they can be distinguished as two distinct objects:

Human Eye – 0.2 mm
Light Microscope – 0.2 μm
SEM – 2.5 nm
TEM – 0.05 nm (theoretical) / 1.0 nm (tissue section)
Atomic Force Microscopy – 50.0 pm
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16
Q

What 5 factors is resolution dependent on?

A
  1. Optical System
  2. Wavelength of Light Source
  3. Specimen Thickness
  4. Quality of fixation
  5. Staining Intensity
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17
Q

What does fixative do?

A

stop metabolism and bacteria/viruses/fungi, harden tissue (12 hours in fixative)

for light microscopy

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18
Q

Processing

Dehydration

A

using a graded series of alcohol

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19
Q

Clearing

A

using a miscible substance

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20
Q

Infiltration

A

using a liquid embedding medium

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21
Q

What are the common problems with the typical histological technique used to prepare tissues to be observed with a light microscopic examination (i.e. with paraffin)?

A
  1. Time - takes awhile (days)
    * Use of Cryostat (tissue into liquid N, back in few min.)
  2. Solvent Dissolves Lipids (interested in them often, don’t want to lose)
    * Double Fixation – First fixation with glutaraldehyde and a second fixation with osmium tetroxide
    * great for preservation of membranes and TEM looks great
  3. Shrinkage of Tissues
    * Embedding in Resin
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22
Q

Acidic dyes

A
  • carry a net negative charge; bind with cationic cell/tissue components (i.e. those that carry a net positive charge)
  • ex. eosin (pink or red hue), orange G, and acid fuchsin
  • stain acidophilic (or eosinophilic) tissues (i.e. those tissues with a high affinity for acid dyes; these tissues exhibit acidophilia)
  • mitochondria, secretory granules, collagen fibers (as well as other extracellular fibers), general cytoplasm, basement membrane; staining with acidic dyes is less specific; more substances within cells and the extracellular matrix exhibit acidophilia than basophilia
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23
Q

Basic Dyes

A
  • carry a net positive charge; bind with anionic cell/tissue components (i.e. those that carry a net negative charge)
  • ex. toluidine blue, alcian, and methylene blue; hematoxylin(doesnt actually have neg charge or pos charge but acts like it does), although not a basic dye, acts like one
  • stain basophilic tissue (i.e. those tissues with a high affinity for basic dyes; these tissues exhibit basophilia)
  • these dyes will bind to the negative phosphate group on DNA and RNA (cell nucleus, nucleoli, RNA-rich portions of the cytoplasm); the carboxyl groups of proteins; sulfate groups of cartilage matrix (GAGs)
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24
Q

Hematoxylin

A

(+: no charge actually, but acts as if its basic): basophilic tissue, blue hue

stains: nuclei, DNA/RNA phosphate groups, protein carboxyl group, GAGs (sulfate group) in cartilage matrix

25
Q

Eosin

A

(-): bind with cationic/ acidophilic/eosinophilic tissue, pink hue

stains: “EVERYTHING BUT THE NUCLEUS” mitochondria, secretory granules, collagen fibers, cytoplasm, basement membrane

-less specific
MORE substances in cells and ECM take to acidic dyes**

26
Q

Histochemistry and Cytochemistry

A

“Don’t wanna use a lot of fixation with these, use cryostat so proteins are functional, enzymes working”
Steps:
1. Section immersed in solution of enzyme’s substrate
2. Enzyme acts on substrate
3. Section put in contact with a marker compound
4. Marker compound reacts w/ molecule produced by enzymatic action on substrate
5. Final product (insoluble and visible by light or electron microscopy) precipitates over site

27
Q

artifact

A

dust, hair, particles that can be an issue when studying tissue sections

28
Q

vesicular transport

A

exocytosis

endocytosis

29
Q

The plasma membrane (plasmalemma) is composed of what? What is its function?

A

phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and chains of oligosaccharides

Site where materials are exchanged between the cell and its environment; regulates the ion concentration of the cytoplasm; also recognition, regulatory, and interaction functions.

30
Q

Humans have approximately ____ different cell types

A

200

31
Q

How thick is the plasma membrane?

A

7.5-10 nm in thickness, EM

32
Q

Describe the structure of the plasma membrane

A

Trilaminar

EM: fluid mosaic model

33
Q

Which process is responsible for the bulk uptake of material across plasma membrane and into the cell?

A

Endocytosis

34
Q

Endocytosis

A

bulk uptake of material across plasma membrane into cell;
folding and fusion of membrane to form vesicles

Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis (Fluid-Phase Endocytosis)
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
35
Q

Phagocytosis

A

“cell-eating”; phagosome; then fuses with lysosomes

36
Q

Pinocytosis

A

Fluid-Phase Endocytosis

binding of the ligand to a receptor causes coated pits made of clathrin to form

  • pinches off to form a coated vesicle
  • fuses with endosomal compartment to form endosomes
37
Q

Exocytosis

A

release of materials across plasma membrane into the EC space

-involves vesicle fusing with plasma membrane and releasing its contents

38
Q

Describe the role of lysosomes as well as their structure

A

Function: intracellular digestion and turnover of cellular components

Size: 0.05-0.5 micrometers

Structure: membrane bound vesicles that contain about 40 different HYDROLYTIC ENZYMES

-abundant in neutrophils, macrophages

39
Q

Ribosomes

A

Function: Protein synthesis

Size: 20nm x 30nm

Structure: Composed of two different-sized subunits; the subunits are composed of rRNA and proteins; can be found free within the cytoplasm or attached to membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum.

phosphate on rRNA makes them MORE BASOPHILIC

40
Q

Rough ER

A

Network of intercommunicating channels and sacs of membranes which enclose a space called a cisterna.

Ribosomes on the cytosolic side of the membrane; produces proteins for secretion.

41
Q

Smooth ER

A

Network of intercommunicating channels and sacs of membranes which enclose a space called a cisterna.

Regions of ER without ribosomes; cisternae are much more tubular; important in the production of phospholipids; abundant in cells that synthesize steroid hormones (i.e. steroid synthesis - aka in adrenal cortex

42
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A

Golgi Complex

Function: Completes post-translational modifications, packages, and sorts proteins synthesized in the RER.

Structure: Composed of smooth membranous saccules
-has a cis (i.e., entry) face and a trans (i.e., exit) face.

43
Q

Mitochondria

A

POWERHOUSE Function: Membrane-enclosed organelles with enzymes arrays specialized for aerobic respiration and production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Size: 0.5μm-1.0μm in diameter and 5μm-10μm in length.

Structure: Two membranes (i.e., inner and outer) and two compartments (i.e., matrix and intermembrane space); inner membrane folded to form cristae which project into matrix.

EOSINOPHILIC

common in muscle, liver, kidney

stain pink with eosin
eosinophilic

44
Q

Secretory Vesicles (Granules)

A

STORAGE

Function: Formed at the Golgi apparatus; store product until it is released via exocytosis.

Structure: Secretory product surrounded by membrane.

45
Q

Proteasomes

A

Function: Degrade denatured and nonfunctional polypeptides.

Structure: Cytoplasmic protein (i.e. no membrane); cylindrical structure made of four stacked rings.

46
Q

Peroxisomes

A

Function: Oxidizes various potentially toxic molecules as well as prescription drugs.

Size: 0.5μm in diameter

Structure: Spherical membrane-limited organelles.

liver, kidney

47
Q

Microtubules

A

Fine tubular structures found in cytoplasmic matrix, centrioles, basal bodies, cilia, and flagella. Hollow lumen.

Function: Formation and maintenance of cell shape; cellular transport of organelles and vesicles; create repeated beating motion

Size: outer diameter of 24nm and a dense wall 5nm thick; hollow lumen

Length: variable; can be many μm in length

Structure: composed of α and β tubulin molecules; organize to form 13 parallel protofilaments

cilia, flagella: 9+2

48
Q

microtubule pattern

A

In cilia and flagella, the same core structure is present – axoneme.
Assembly of microtubules in a 9+2 pattern.
Nine peripheral doublets have an outer arm of dynein which connects to next doublet; ATP-dependant interaction cause conformational changes – get repeated beating movement.

49
Q

Microfilaments

Actin Filaments

A

Function: Allow for contractile activity within cells, including cell shape changes for endocytosis, exocytosis, and cell locomotion, moving cytoplasmic components, and cleavage during mitosis.

Size: 5-9nm

Structure: Composed of globular subunits organized into a double-stranded helix.

50
Q

Intermediate Filaments

A

Very stable; provide mechanical strength and stability.

Size: 10-12nm in diameter

Structure: Protein subunits different in different cell types; rod-like subunit that organize into a cable-like structure.

51
Q

Inclusions

A

Are NOT considered organelles

Cytoplasmic structures or deposits composed mainly of accumulated metabolites or other substances

  • liquid droplets ( cells appear empty in staining cause of organic solvents in processing)
  • glycogen granuels
  • pigment deposits
52
Q

Nucleus

A

Main Components:
1. Nuclear Envelope – two parallel unit membranes separated by a narrow space; at sites where inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope fuse, nuclear pore complexes form; where regulation of the transport between the nucleus and cytoplasm takes place.

  1. Chromatin – the chromosomal material in a largely uncoiled state.
    Heterochromatin – course granules in EM and basophilic clumps in light microscopy.
    Euchromatin – less coiled; fine granules in EM and lightly basophilic areas in light microscopy.

3.Nucleolus – spherical, highly basophilic structure present in nuclei of cells active in protein synthesis; lots of rRNA in this location.

euchromatin lightly basophilic sdoesnt stain well

53
Q

Nucleus main components

A
  1. Nuclear Envelope
  2. Chromatin
    Heterochromatin
    Euchromatin
  3. Nucleolus
54
Q

Apoptosis

A

The process of cell suicide or programmed cell death; leads to the production of small membrane-enclosed apoptotic bodies which undergo phagocytosis by neighboring cells.

55
Q

necrosis vs apoptosis

A

PROGRAMMED cell death = apoptosis

56
Q

Autophagosome

A

lysosomes that get rid of nonfunctional cellular components

57
Q

cisterna

A

space enclosed by ER

58
Q

The basal lamina is observed in TEM by using what?

A

osmium tetroxide (silver)

Anatomy 6511 Exam One Material (8 decks)

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