5 the psychobiological process of memory

Question 1

memory

Answer 1

the processing, storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning

Question 2

the three fundamental processes required for human memory

Answer 2

• encoding: conversion of sensory info into a usable form so that it can be neurologically represented and stored in memory
• storage: retention of the encoded info over time
• retrieval: recovery of stored info for use when needed

Question 3

Atkinson–Shiffrin multistore model of memory

Answer 3

a representation and explanation of memory as consisting of three separate stores (SM, STM and LTM, differing in function, capacity and duration)

Question 4

sensory memory (define, function, capacity, duration, explain)

Answer 4

the entry point of memory where new incoming sensory info is stored for a very brief period

function: receives sensory info from the environment & enables perceptual continuity for the world around us
capacity: vast, potentially unlimited
duration: momentary — about 0.2–4 seconds

• if we pay attention to info in SM, then it is transferred to STM
• sensory info that is not attended to is lost from memory completely

Question 5

iconic memory

Answer 5

visual sensory memory

• we retain visual images in iconic memory for about 1/3 of a second
• images last just long enough to recognise and process the information

Question 6

echoic memory

Answer 6

auditory sensory memory

• we retain sounds in echoic memory for about 3–4 seconds
• important for understanding speech
• enables us to hold onto the start of a sentence to make sense of the end!
• enables the ‘Cocktail party’ effect (when you hear someone say your name from across the room)

Question 7

short-term memory

Answer 7

function: receives info from SM and transfers info to and from LTM, maintains info in conscious awareness for immediate use
capacity: 7±2 pieces of info
duration: temporary — 18–20 seconds, possibly up to 30 seconds, longer if renewed

• transfer of info from STM involves a further level of processing (encoding) for storage in LTM
• maintains info in conscious awareness for immediate use
• info stored in STM is lost primarily through decay (not being used) and displacement (being pushed out) by new information

Question 8

chunking

Answer 8

grouping of separate bits of information into one or more larger units, or ‘chunks’, of information

• numbers, words, abbreviations, acrostics
• increases capacity in STM

Question 9

STM as working memory

Answer 9

enables us to maintain information in conscious awareness whilst we actively ‘work on’ and manipulate it as we undertake our everyday tasks

• e.g. interpretation of emotions and feelings, language comprehension, daydreaming, creativity problem solving, analysing, reasoning, planning, & decision-making

Question 10

long-term memory

Answer 10

function: info storage for re-access and use at a later time
capacity: vast, potentially unlimited
duration: potentially permanent, some info may be lost or inaccessible over time, indefinite

• info may be retrieved from LTM and brought back to STM when needed
• inability to retrieve info from the LTM store is ‘forgetting’

Question 11

explicit memory (declarative memory)

Answer 11

LTM that can be consciously retrieved and stated – ‘memory with awareness’

• involve general knowledge or information about personal experiences
• responses can be recalled and recognised (state)
• declarative memory
• subtypes: episodic and semantic

Question 12

episodic memory (explicit)

Answer 12

LTM of personally experienced events (what) associated with a particular time (when) and place (where)

• always include self as the initiator or recipient of some action
• autobiographical memory: a person’s memory for events that occur in their life that can consist of info stored in episodic memory

Question 13

semantic memory (explicit)

Answer 13

LTM of facts and knowledge about the world

• does NOT include time and place
• e.g. facts and knowledge, everyday facts and general knowledge, meaning of words, rules, concepts, & areas of expertise

Question 14

implicit memory

Answer 14

LTM that does NOT require conscious or intentional retrieval – ‘memory without awareness’

• responses can be observed (behaviour)
• non-declarative
• subtypes: procedural memory and classically conditioned memory

Question 15

procedural memory

Answer 15

LTM for skills involved in particular tasks

• involve motor and cognitive skills
• based on practice and demonstrated through performance
• require little to no intentional or conscious effort to retrieve
• often difficult to put into words

Question 16

classically conditioned memory

Answer 16

• involve fear and anxiety
• taste aversion may be acquired involuntarily w/o conscious awareness thru classical conditioning
• simple conditioned reflex responses may involve implicit memory

Question 17

brain areas involved in long-term implicit and explicit memories

Answer 17

• basal ganglia
• cerebellum
• hippocampus
• amygdala
• neocortex

Question 18

brain areas involved in episodic and semantic memory (explicit)

Answer 18

• hippocampus
• amygdala
• neocortex

Question 19

role of the hippocampus in episodic and semantic memory (explicit)

Answer 19

• encodes, consolidates, and transfers to the neocortex
• assists retrieval
  interacts with amygdala
• spatial memory formation & retrieval

Question 20

role of the amygdala in episodic and semantic memory (explicit)

Answer 20

• strengthens encoding and consolidation of emotional memories
• signals to the hippocampus that an event is emotionally significant

Question 21

role of the neocortex in episodic and semantic memory (explicit)

Answer 21

• stores memories
• interacts with the hippocampus in formation, consolidation, storage and retrieval
• mainly frontal and temporal lobes

Question 22

role of the neocortex in procedural memory (implicit)

Answer 22

stores well-learned motor responses/sequences

Question 23

role of the cerebellum in procedural memory (implicit)

Answer 23

• encoding, retrieval, temporary storage
• coordination and execution of movements of spatial memory

Question 24

role of the basal ganglia in procedural memory (implicit)

Answer 24

• formation/encoding and retrieval of motor skills - involuntary, fluid movement connection with the cerebellum
• habituation

Question 25

role of the amygdala in classically conditioned memory (implicit)

Answer 25

formation and consolidation of CC fear responses

Question 26

role of the neocortex in classically conditioned memory (implicit)

Answer 26

stores complex CC responses (not conditioned reflexes)

Question 27

role of the cerebellum in classically conditioned memory (implicit)

Answer 27

stores simple conditioned reflexes

Question 28

role of the basal ganglia in classically conditioned memory (implicit)

Answer 28

• involved with encoding and storing CC memories
• habituation

Question 29

autobiographical events

Answer 29

experiences that have occurred some time in your life

• stored in episodic memory
• to retrieve + be consciously aware of an autobiographical event, we have to ‘mentally time travel’ & place ourselves in the context of the event
• Tulving used ‘mental time travel’ to emphasise how episodic memory allows us to ‘relive’ the past & use past experiences to construct an imagined future

Question 30

past and future

Answer 30

• researchers have found similarities b/w the processes of remembering the past & imagining the future
• e.g. studies of people with Alzheimer’s disease show that a common brain network underlies both memory & imagination + use of mental imagery to create & see a picture of an object/event in the future

Question 31

Alzheimer’s disease

Answer 31

a neurodegenerative disorder characterised by gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons, progressively causing memory decline, deterioration of cognitive and social skills & personality changes

• degeneration can occur in the neocortex or hippocampus first, causing either STM or LTM (explicit) problems respectively
• scans have shown that both episodic + semantic memory play key roles in imagining the future

Question 32

Alzheimer’s disease vs dementia

Answer 32

ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE is a specific brain disease that accounts for about 70% of dementia cases

• Alzheimer’s disease is a type of dementia

DEMENTIA is a general term for symptoms like decline in memory, reasoning or other thinking skills

• Alzheimer’s disease is a cause of dementia

Question 33

aphantasia

Answer 33

absence of visual imagery

• inability to use visual imagery to picture something in your mind’s eye
• 1-5% of population
• visual imagery is involved when we recognise faces, remember past events, plan future actions & navigate our way b/w locations
• visual imagery involves a network of brain activity from visual cortex to prefrontal cortex (attention & decision-making)
  – people w aphantasia have a weaker connection b/w these two areas, therefore disrupting access to visual processing areas

Question 34

mnemonic

Answer 34

any technique used to assist memory

• use information that is already stored in LTM
• more info is stored, not less
• tends to encode the material richly + make it easier to locate & retrieve because it has enhanced organisation in LTM

Question 35

acronyms

Answer 35

pronounceable words formed from the first letters of a group of words

• formed using a type of ‘chunking’ or grouping procedure

Question 36

acrostics

Answer 36

making verbal associations for items to be remembered by constructing sentences (or phrases) using the first letters of the information to be remembered

Question 37

method of loci

Answer 37

a mnemonic device for which the items to be remembered are converted into mental images and associated with specific locations; also called memory palace or mind palace

Question 38

Aboriginal peoples’s use of songlines

Answer 38

a navigational route comprising a sequence
of locations used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples which may also serve as mnemonic; also called dreaming track

Question 39

similarities between acrostics and songlines

Answer 39

• both act as retrieval cues for other content
• both rely on meaningful strings of words
• both use verbal communication

Question 40

differences between acrostic and songlines

Answer 40

acrostics

• typically not sung
• do not increase over time
• typically a narrow band of content relating to one topic/subject

songlines

• typically sung but not always
• often increase in content over time
• may contain a broad volume of content from different topics/cultural significance/geography etc.