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4.Nervous system and Brain Flashcards

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1
Q

describe the brain vs heart debate

A

Historical debate sounding whether the heart or brain was responsible for central functions including thought, emotion and behaviour

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2
Q

describe briefly the brain hypothesis

A

thoughts and feelings are rooted in the brain

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3
Q

describe briefly the heart hypothesis

A

thoughts and feelings are rooted in the heart

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4
Q

Using specific examples, who supported the brain hypothesis

A

The greeks
-Alcmaeon was the first recorded person to locate the brain as the source of mental processes
-Pythagoras and Plato were also early supporters of the hypothesis
-Galen also posited the brain hypothesis through observation (most famously of pigs)

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5
Q

using specific examples, who supported the heart hypothesis

A

the egyptians
-empedocles believed that blood was the place for human cognition and thought, especially the blood around the heart’’
-aristotle also proposed that the heart was responsible for all mental functions

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6
Q

who ‘won’ the brain versus heart debate

A

thanks to empirical scientific evidence we now know that the brain is responsible for our mental functions, feelings and behaviour.

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7
Q

the mind body problem

A

The mind body problem concerns the questions of whether our mind and body are distinct separate entities or whether they are the same thing

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8
Q

two sides to the mind body problem

A

dualism
monism

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9
Q

dualism

A

The mind (non physical) and body (physical) are two distinct things but interact to produce sensations, thoughts, emotions and other conscious experience.
-descartes

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10
Q

monism

A

suggests that the mind and body are one and the same thing

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11
Q

Brain ablation

A

Brain ablation involves disabling, destroying or removing selected brain tissue, followed by an assessment of subsequent changes in behaviour

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12
Q

Pierre Flourens

A

-credited as introducing brain ablation experiments
-discrediting highly specific localisation of function and phrenology
-developed techniques of damaging or removing small areas of brain tissue to observe the effects on behaviour (used rabbits and pigeons)
-found evidence for neural plasticity (animals could eventually recover loss of movement)

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13
Q

Limitations of Pierre Flourens

A

-Imprecise surgical procedures
-did not provide detailed reports of findings

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14
Q

Karl Lashley

A

-used brain ablation on rats, monkeys and chimpanzees to find the location of learning and memory in the brain

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15
Q

Identify two key conclusion proposed by Lashley

A

Mass action
Equipotentiality

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16
Q

Mass action

A

Large areas of the brain function as a whole for complex functions

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17
Q

Equipotentiality

A

healthy part of the cortex can take over the function of the injured part (plasticity)

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18
Q

Moniz

A

-developed lobotomies
-idea that lobotomised chimpanzees became placid compared to the aggression displayed prior the surgery

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19
Q

lobotomy

A

-A form of psychosurgery to treat mental illness
-Involves scraping away (via the eye) most of the neural connections in the prefrontal cortex

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20
Q

Symptoms of lobotomies

A

-reduction in cognitive processes and behaviour
-Lack of emotional expression
-Reduction in interest and energy
-dull and lifeless personalities

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21
Q

Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) (EBS)

A

ESB may be done by placing electrodes on or inside a specific place on a persons head. These electrodes then send an electrical signal to that specific area of the brain, thereby stimulating the activity of neurones in that area

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22
Q

Key figures of ESB

A

-Fritsch and Hitzig
-Wilder Penfield

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23
Q

Penfield- Mapping the brain

A

-when the cerebral cortex was exposed, Penfield was able to stimulate different areas using an electrode
-Penfield used tiny numbered tags to mark areas of the cortex that he electrically stimulated as he developed his brain ‘map’.

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24
Q

Findings of a split brain patient

A

-Visual info in the L visual field is sent to the right hemisphere and vice versa
-Split brain patients were able to recognise and name images projected in the R visual field (sent to the left hemisphere-verbal)
-Split brain patients were able to recognise and detect images in the L visual field (sent to right hemisphere-non verbal) but were unable to verbalise what they saw but could draw it with their left hand

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25
Q

Left hemisphere function

A

The left hemisphere responsible for the organisation of language expression and comprehension

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26
Q

Why can non split brain patients recognise and verbalise visual images in both visual fields

A

Information processed in the right hemisphere can be transferred via the corpus callosum to the left hemisphere for language processing.

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27
Q

how does computerised tomography (CT) work?

A

-neuro-imaging technique that produces a computer enhanced image of a cross section from x rays taken at different angles

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28
Q

Do CT scans show brain structure or function

A

STRUCTURAL brain abnormalities

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29
Q

advantages of computerised tomography

A

-provides clear and accurate images
-allows for comparison between ‘normal’ and ‘abnormal’ brains
-relatively non invasive (just an injection called contrast)

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30
Q

what is contrast

A

a dye (contrast medium) used to make some tissue show more clearly. These dyes are harmless and removed from the blood via urinary system.

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31
Q

limitations of computerised tomography

A

-only shows structure not function
-pregnant women are not advised to have CT scans as there is risk radiation may cause some damage to the unborn child.
-in rare cases it is possible to have an allergic reaction to the contrast injection

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32
Q

how does positron emission tomography work (PET)?

A

-tracks blood flow by measuring the use of glucose by neurones in the active area of the brain
-radioactive material (flurodeoxyglucose) is injected into the participants bloodstream. This travels to the brain and emits various levels of radioactive signals. These are detected and processed by the PET computer to produce PET scans.
-Different colours are used to indicate different levels of brain activity

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33
Q

what colours represent various levels of brain activity (PET) scan

A

least to most activity :
violet, blue,green. yellow and red

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34
Q

advantages of positron emission tomography

A

-Displays detail colour coded images of a functioning brain
-allows researchers to see how different areas of the brain function together for certain tasks.
-colours make interpretation simple

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35
Q

do PET scans show brain structure or function

A

provide information regarding FUNCTION and ACTIVITY of brain during tasks

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36
Q

limitations of positron emission tomography

A

-requires injection (radioactive glucose)
-use of radioactivity means that longitudinal studies are difficult and dangerous
-PET scans require 40s rests between 30s scans, hence may miss rapid changes in brain function

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37
Q

how does magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) work?

A

uses magnetic fields and radio waves to vibrate the brans neurones and produce an image.

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38
Q

do MRI scans show brain structure or function

A

used to identify STRUCTURAL abnormalities

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39
Q

advantages of magnetic resonance imaging

A

-clearer and more detailed images than a CT scan
-non invasive
-no x rays or radioactivity involved

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40
Q

limitations of magnetic resonance imaging

A

-only shows structure and anatomy
-can not be used on people with internal metallic devices

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41
Q

how does functional magnetic resonance imaging work?

A

-uses magnetic fields and radio waves to vibrate the brains neurones and produce an image
-detects changes in oxygen levels and blood to show level of functioning neurones

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42
Q

do fMRi scans show brain structure or function

A

brain FUNCTION

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43
Q

advantages of functional magnetic resonance imaging

A

-no exposure to radiation
-detailed images of brain functioning
-shows a combination of brain structure and function
-detects changes in function in rapid succession

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44
Q

limitations of functional magnetic resonance imaging

A

-expensive and limited access
-can not be used on people with internal metallic devices

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45
Q

how does an electroencephalograph (EEG) work

A

detects, amplifies and records general patterns of electrical activity within the brain
-electrodes are placed along the scalp

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46
Q

does an EEG show brain structure or function

A

function

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47
Q

advantages of an electroencephalograph

A

-provides overall information about the brain without being invasive
-used to study patterns of activity over long periods of time eg sleep
-it shows different brain waves for different activity and is useful to study hemispheric specialisation

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48
Q

limitations of an electroencephalograph

A

-doesn’t provide detailed information regarding structures of the brain
-difficult to pin point specific areas of activity
-unable to distinguish a response from ‘background noise’ neural activity
-only provides a summary of neural activity

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49
Q

what is the central NS composed of

A

-composed of the brain and spinal chord

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50
Q

Central NS function

A

-processes sensory information to activate appropriate actions

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51
Q

spinal chord function

A

-connects the brain to the rest of the body
-send information from sensory neurones in various parts of the body to the brain
-relays motor commands back to muscles and organs via motor neurones

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52
Q

what does the Peripheral NS consist of

A

The peripheral NS consists of all the nerves outside the Central NS (ie brain and spinal chord)

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53
Q

Peripheral NS function

A

The Peripheral NS carries sensory information from the body to the Central NS, and motor information from the Central NS to the body

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54
Q

subdivisions of the Peripheral NS

A

Somatic NS
Autonomic NS

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55
Q

Two major divisions of the Nervous System

A

Central NS
Peripheral NS

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56
Q

Function of the Somatic NS

A

-The somatic NS transmits sensory information to the CNS and carries out its motor commands
-The somatic NS is involved in voluntary muscle movements

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57
Q

other name for somatic NS

A

voluntary nervous sytem

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58
Q

subdivisions of the somatic NS

A

sensory information and voluntary skeletal muscles

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59
Q

Function of autonomic NS

A

-responsible for AUTOMATIC responses
-carries information to internal bodily structures (eg heart, lungs and glands) that carry out basic life functions
-responsible for any life giving responses eg pumping blood

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60
Q

subdivisions of the Autonomic NS

A

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic NS

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61
Q

Function of Sympathetic NS

A

-readies the body for a fight or flight response when exposed to threats
-instantaneous reaction
-short term
-speedy/rapid
-involuntary

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62
Q

physiological changes by the Sympathetic NS

A

-slows digestion
-increases Heart rate
-dilates pupils
-diverts blood away from the stomach to muscles (which may need it more)
-decreased bladder control

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63
Q

Function of Parasympathetic NS

A

-supports more routine activities that maintains the bodys store of energy (eg regulating blood glucose levels)
-once a threat has passed the parasympathetic NS resumes control from the sympathetic NS

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64
Q

physiological changes by the parasympathetic NS

A

-Heart rate lowers
-Increased digestion
-blood pressure lowers
-stop sweating
-bladder control increases
-pupils constrict

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65
Q

subdivisions of the central NS

A

brain and spinal chord

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66
Q

what is the neural message within neurones

A

electrical impulse

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67
Q

what is the neural message between neurones

A

chemical messages (neurotransmitters)

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68
Q

dendrite function

A

receive input from other neurones

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69
Q

cell body/soma function

A

includes a nucleus which controls the neurone

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70
Q

axon function

A

transmits information to other neurones

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71
Q

myelin sheath function

A

-‘fatty covering’ that insulates the axon from chemical and physical stimuli that might interfere with the transmission of nerve impulses
-helps in speeding up the neural impulse

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72
Q

terminal buttons function

A

sends signals from a neurone to adjacent cells (release neurotransmitters)

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73
Q

synapse function

A

the space between neurones where transmission occurs

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74
Q

axon terminals function

A

branch like extensions from the axon that carries message to terminal buttons

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75
Q

another name for terminal buttons

A

synaptic knobs

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76
Q

difference between synapse and synaptic gap

A

synapse-pre synaptic terminal buttons + synaptic gaps + post synaptic dendritic spines
whereas
synaptic gap-only the gap

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77
Q

identify types of neurones

A

sensory neurons
interneurons
motor neurons

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78
Q

sensory/? neurons

A

sensory/ afferent neurons

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79
Q

motor/? neurons

A

motor/ efferent neurons

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80
Q

where are sensory neurones found

A

PNS

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81
Q

where are motor neurones found

A

in the lower brainstem and spinal chord

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82
Q

where are interneurons found

A

CNS (only)

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83
Q

what do sensory/afferent neurones do

A

-transmit information from sensory cells in the body (called receptors) to the brain (either directly or by the way of the spinal chord)
-sense the external world and monitor changes within our bodies
-some sensory neurones transit information directly to the spinal chord whereas others transmit info to the brain via the spinal chord
-sensory neurones have specialised functions depending on where they are found

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84
Q

what do motor/efferent neurones do

A

-also called effectors and motor neurones
-carry messages from the CNS to cells in skeletal muscles, organs and glands to simulate activity

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85
Q

what do interneurons do

A

-act as a link between sensory and motor neurones, relaying information from one neurone to another (this is because sensory and motor neurones are rarely directly connected)
-enable simple reflexes in spinal chord and complex functions in the brain

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86
Q

what do glial cells do

A

provide the structural framework that enable a network of neurones to remain connected

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87
Q

identify CNS glial cells

A

Astrocytes
Microglia
Oligodendroglia

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88
Q

identify PNS glial cells

A

Schwann cells
satellite cells

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89
Q

astrocytes functions

A

Provide physical and nutritional support for CNS neurones

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90
Q

microglia function

A

Are the immune cells of the CNS. They fight infection and respond to injury

91
Q

oligodendroglia function

A

Produce myelin sheath of neurones in the CNS

92
Q

Schwann Cells function

A

Produce the myelin sheath of neurones in the PNS. Essential to the maintenance, function and development of peripheral nerves

93
Q

Satellite cells function

A

Surrounds and covers the cell bodies/soma. Maintain the cell body and keeps the neurone functional by supply nutrients to the soma

94
Q

identify structures of hindbrain

A

cerebellum
medulla
pons

Hermione Completes Maths Problems

95
Q

identify structures of midbrain

A

reticular activating system

Muddleheaded Ron

96
Q

identify structures of forebrain

A

Hypothalamus
thalamus
cerebrum

Forgets How To Calculate

96
Q

where is hindbrain found

A

-found at base of brain
-contains lower level brain structures

97
Q

where is the medulla found

A

top of the spinal chord

98
Q

another name for medulla

A

medulla oblongata

99
Q

the medulla function

A

controls reflexive functions vital for survival (eg swallowing, breathing, heart pumping)

100
Q

damage to medulla

A

death is most likely to occur

101
Q

the pons function

A

-connects top of spinal chord to the brain
-involved in sleep, dreaming and arousal
-has a relay/bridge function from cerebrum to cerebellum- eg.passes messages related to movement form Cortex to cerebellum

102
Q

damage to the pons

A

results in locked in syndrome

103
Q

briefly describe locked in syndrome

A

Brain is functioning completely normal but messages are unable to get to the rest of the body

104
Q

where is the cerebellum found

A

base of Brain towards back

105
Q

the cerebellum function

A

-coordination of fine muscle movements (ensuring they are smooth and precise)
-regulates posture and balance
-plays a role in fluent speech

106
Q

damage to cerebellum

A

-difficulty completing ADL’s
-difficulty speaking (stuttering)
-poor balance and coordination

107
Q

where is the mid brain

A

deep within the brain

108
Q

midbrain function

A

involved with movement, processing sensory information and sleep and arousal

109
Q

function of reticular formation

A

-filters incoming sensory information so the brain is not overloaded
-maintains consciousness, regulates arousal and muscle tension

110
Q

function of reticular activating system

A

-involved in arousal
-involved in attention especially selective attention. It initiates the attention response by alerting cortical areas of the brain to significant changes to the environment.

111
Q

damage to reticular activating system

A

-coma
-disruption to sleep-wake cycle
-difficulties in maintaining attention

112
Q

forebrain function

A

controls and regulates higher order functions
eg personality, cognitive functions, learning and perception

113
Q

hypothalamus function

A

-maintains the body’s internal environment (state of homeostasis)
eg regulates
-body temperature
-emotions
-thirst
-hunger
-sexual functioning
-hormone release

114
Q

damage to hypothalamus

A

-eating problems may occur

115
Q

thalamus function

A

-filters and transfers ALL sensory information (except smell) to relevant areas of the brain for processing
-transfers neural info (concerning alertness and attention) from RF to CC
-directly linked to RF
-involved with arousal and alertness
-minimises sensory pathways during sleep

116
Q

damage to thalamus

A

-loss of any sense (except smell)
-attention difficulties
-lower arousal due to lethargy

117
Q

what is the cerebral cortex

A

The top layer of the cerebrum, it is divided into two hemispheres and four lobes

118
Q

cerebral cortex function

A

-receiving and processing of sensory information
-initiating motor responses

119
Q

what is meant by contralateral function

A

each hemisphere controls opposite sides of the body
-RH receives sensory info from, and controls the left side of the body

120
Q

what is meant by ‘hemispheric specialisation’

A

term used to describe the unique functions of one hemisphere that is not shared with the other hemisphere

121
Q

Left hemisphere function

A

-Verbal and analytical function:
-reading
-writing
-speaking (both production and interpretation of speech)
-sequential process of analysis

122
Q

Right hemisphere function

A

Non verbal functions:
-visual awareness-recognising places, objects and faces
-spatial awareness

123
Q

what lobe is the primary motor cortex located in

A

frontal lobe

124
Q

what lobe is Broca’s area located in

A

frontal lobe

125
Q

what lobe is the somatosensory cortex located in

A

parietal lobe

126
Q

what lobe is the primary visual cortex located in

A

occipital lobe

127
Q

what lobe is the primary auditory cortex located in

A

temporal lobe

128
Q

what lobe is Wernicke’s area located in

A

temporal lobe

129
Q

frontal lobe function

A

-concerned with higher order functions such as decision making, reasoning, planning and emotions
-expressing language
-executive functions and cognitive skills
includes capacity to:
-plan
-organise
-initiate
-self monitor
-controls one response in order to achieve a goal

130
Q

primary motor cortex function

A

stores information about how to carry out different movements

131
Q

damage to the frontal lobe

A

-inability to plan a sequence of complex movements needed to complete multi stepped tasks
-inability to express language
-inability to focus on tasks and filter out distractions
-mood fluctuations (emotional lability)
-difficulty problem solving
-difficulty inhibiting or controlling a response or impulse

132
Q

parietal lobe function

A

-concerned with processing sensory information (temperature and touch), orientation and types of recognition and memory
-processing and interpreting somatosensory input
-integrating sensory input and construction of a spatial coordinate system

133
Q

what does the homunculus show

A

represents the disproportionate areas of the primary somatosensory cortex devoted to different parts of the body

134
Q

somatosensory cortex function

A

receives and processes sensory information from skin and body
-responsible for sense of position
-spatial reasoning (maps)
-locating objects and visual attention

135
Q

what is the role of the central sulcus

A

separates the somatosensory cortex and Primary motor cortex

136
Q

damage to the parietal lobe

A

-difficulty with drawing objects
-difficulty distinguishing left from right
-spatial disorientation and navigation difficulties
-lack of awareness of certain body parts/ surrounding space
-inability to focus visual attention

137
Q

function of occipital lobe + primary visual cortex

A

processing information from the eyes including vision, colour, shape and perspective

138
Q

damage to the occipital lobe

A

-difficulty identifying colours (colour agnosia)
-hallucinations
-visual illusions
-inability to recognise movement of objects (movement agnosia)

139
Q

which hemisphere is Broca’s area in

A

left hemisphere

140
Q

which hemisphere is wernicke’s area in

A

left hemisphere

141
Q

temporal lobe function

A

-Concerned with processing auditory information (i.e. hearing, sound, recognition of speech) also involved in memory encoding faces and expression
other functions:

-role in processing info and visual perception
-left side-understanding language and learning and remembering visual info
-right side-learning and remembering non verbal info

142
Q

Broca’s area function

A

Responsible for the production of clear and articulate speech
-coordinates muscles responsible for clear speech eg tongue,mouth

143
Q

Wernicke’s area function

A

involved in the comprehension of speech (making sense/understanding verbal communication)

144
Q

Broca’s aphasia

A

An impairment in language production brought about by neurological damage
-characterised by non fluent speech but can understand it
-unable to add suffixes

145
Q

Wernicke’s aphasia

A

results in deficits in the comprehension of language
-characterised by fluent speech but difficulty understanding speech
-inability to select appropriate words from memory

146
Q

damage to the temporal lobe

A

-persistent talking
-difficulty learning and retaining new info
-difficulty understanding words
-difficulty recognising faces
-impaired factual and long term memory

147
Q

primary auditory cortex function

A

-receiving and processing auditory information

Left primary auditory cortex is involved in receiving and processing verbal auditory information
Right primary auditory cortex is involved in receiving and processing non verbal auditory information

148
Q

identify the key stages of neural communication

A
  1. Resting potential
  2. Threshold
  3. Depolarisation (action potential)
  4. Repolarisation

READ THE DINGOS RESEARCH

149
Q

Describe the resting potential
+state the charge inside the cell

A

= -70 mV
-neurone is ‘at rest’
-natural state for the nerve cell
-neurone is not sending an electrical signal
-there are more positive Na+ (sodium) ions outside the cell and more K+ (potassium) ions inside the cell
-The outside of the cell is positively charged compared to the negatively charged inside

(SOAPI PONI)

150
Q

Describe the threshold
+state the charge inside the cell

A

= -55 mV
-An event (stimulus) causes the resting potential to move towards 0 mV
-Neurotransmitters bind with receptors at dendrites and cause sodium channels to open
-once the threshold is reached, the action potential will always fire in an all or nothing event
-if threshold isn’t reached, no action potential is fired

151
Q

Describe Depolarisation
+state the charge inside the cell

A

= between 30 and 40 mV
-Once the threshold is reached, the inside of the neurones becomes more positive (depolarised)
-The action potentials causes Na+ (sodium) channels to open, and Na+ to flood the cell
-Na+ is positive, hence neurones becomes relatively positively charged (compared to outside of neurones) and hence is depolarised

152
Q

Describe Repolarisation
+state the charge inside the cell

A

= -70 mV
-Potassium (K+) channels open, potassium rushes out of the cell, reversing the depolarisation (repolarisation)
-This makes the cell relatively more negatively charged so that it returns to the resting potential state
-action potential continues to travel along axon until reaches terminal buttons

153
Q

What is the spinal reflex

A

-the spinal chord can initiate some simple responses on its own, independently of the brain
-a spinal reflex is an unconscious, involuntary and automatically occurring response to certain stimuli without any involvement of the brain

154
Q

5 steps involved in the withdrawal response

A
  1. sensory neurones carry message along sensory pathway to spinal chord
    2.interneurons in the spinal chord relay the message to motor neurones
    3.motor neurones carry the message along the motor pathway to the effector (eg .hand muscles) causing a withdrawal response
    4.The spinal reflex occurs at the same time that sensory neurones carry the message further up the spinal chord to the brain
    5.The message is received in any area of the brain that processes that type of sensory information and interprets it as pain in the effector.
155
Q

how does the patella knee jerk reflex differ form the withdrawal reflex

A

it is a monosynaptic reflex whereas the withdrawal reflex is a polysynaptic reflex

156
Q

other name for spinal reflex

A

reflex arc or withdrawal reflex

157
Q

what is meant by monosynaptic reflex

A

involves one synapse and the interaction between A sensory neurone and motor neurone

158
Q

polysynaptic reflex

A

involves the activation of more than one synapse it includes an interneuron making a connection between the sensory and motor neurone

159
Q

what is meant by ‘polarised’

A

the inside of the neurone is negatively charged compared to the outside

160
Q

Describe the organisation of the primary somatosensory cortex

A

-contra-laterally organised
-upper half of the primary somatosensory cortex receives information from lower parts of the body
-the more sensitive the body part, the more physical space it occupies on the primary somatosensory cortex

161
Q

describe the organisation of the primary motor cortex

A

the parts of the body more heavily involved in fine motor skills occupy more physical space on the primary motor cortex

162
Q

describe what is meant by neural plasticity

A

neural plasticity refers to the manner in which the brain changes in response to stimulation from the environment

163
Q

identify types of neural plasticity

A

-developmental plasticity
-adaptive plasticity

164
Q

what is developmental plasticity

A

changes in the brains neural structure during its growth and development (maturation)

165
Q

Identify the key processes of developmental plasticity

A

-Proliferation
-Migration
-Synaptogenesis
-Synaptic pruning
-Myelinantion

(Please Move She Sees Money)

166
Q

other name for synaptogenesis

A

circuit formation

167
Q

describe proliferation

A

Unborn baby’s neurones divide and multiply at a rapid rate

168
Q

describe migration

A

new neurones in the foetus and newborn move to their location from the brain to the nervous system.

169
Q

describe synaptogenesis

A

creation of multiple connections between neurones

170
Q

describe synaptic pruning

A

the removal of connections that have not formed strong pathways and are no longer needed
eg teachers name in kindergarten

171
Q

describe myelination

A

development of thick myelin sheath (which speeds up neural impulses and inhibits chemical and physical stimuli interfering with impulses). Process continues into very late adolescence

172
Q

what processes of development plasticity occur during and just after birth

A

proliferation
migration

173
Q

what processes of developmental plasticity occur after birth

A

synaptogenesis
synaptic pruning
myelinations

174
Q

on average when is our brain full developed

A

25 years old

175
Q

what is the last area of the brain to develop

A

last area to undergo myelination and synaptic pruning is the frontal lobe- the prefrontal cortex is the VERY last area to develop

176
Q

what is the teenage brain highly responsive to

A

rewards and emotions

177
Q

what is the significance of the striatum especially in adolescents and what effect does it have on behaviour

A

the striatum, located under the cerebral cortex is responsible for the reward system in the brain. It is more easily activated in adolescents.

This means that adolescents are more likely to make poor choices, engage in risk taking behaviour and confront new opportunities

178
Q

identify two periods in developmental plasticity

A

sensitive and critical periods

179
Q

what is a sensitive period

A

the period of time in which an organism is more responsive to certain stimulation
eg period of language acquisition

180
Q

when is the sensitive period for language acquisition

A

0-12 years old

181
Q

what happens If a sensitive period is ‘missed’

A

one may be able to relearn some of the basics that they missed

182
Q

what is a critical period

A

the narrow period of time where development in an organism is preprogrammed for learning to occur

183
Q

what happens if a critical period is ‘missed’

A

one is unable to relearn the development they missed

184
Q

what is experience expectant development +eg

A

brain is primed (ready and expects) to make neural changes provided it gets the correct input- linked to sensitive periods
eg. learning a first language

185
Q

what is experience dependant development +eg

A

not linked to sensitive periods, the creation and organisation of neurones connections that occur as a result of person’s life experiences
eg learning to play a musical instrument

186
Q

what is adaptive plasticity

A

new synaptic connections are formed or synaptic connections are altered due to one/or more of the following:
-change in environmental conditions -(adapting to environment)
-learning a new concept
-relearning something after brain injury

187
Q

identify the two key processes that underline rehabilitation

A

rerouting
sprouting

188
Q

what is rerouting

A

Neurons near damaged areas seek new active connections with healthy neurones

189
Q

what is sprouting

A

New dendrites grow to enable new connections between neurones

190
Q

what is Parkinson’s disease

A

a neurodegenerative disease In which neurones at the base of the brain (substantia nigra) degenerate and gradually cease to function normally

191
Q

Biological causes of Parkinson’s disease

A
192
Q

basal ganglia function

A

-regulates movement, the basal ganglia depends on a certain amount of dopamine to function at peak efficiency
-when there is a deficiency of dopamine in the brain, movements may become delayed and uncoordinated

193
Q

dopamine function

A

-carries messages between neurones to ensure effective planning, initiation and maintenance of motor movements
-less dopamine means the brain receives less or irregular message on how to control movement

194
Q

where is dopamine produced

A

substantia nigra

195
Q

motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease

A

-tremors (uncontrollable and involuntary shaking)
-rigidity of muscles (muscle stiffness or tightness)
-akinesia (reduced motor control and recision of movements) and slower movements
-stooped posture
-poor balance

(TRAPS)

196
Q

non motor symptoms of parkisnon’s disease

A

-fatigue
-increased sensitivity to temperatures
-decreased sense of smell
-REM sleep disorder
-constipation
-lowered cognitive ability and decision making, memory
-mental health problems

197
Q

general causes of parkisnon’s disease

A

-parkinson’s disease is said to be idiopathic - has no specific cause
-other less common causes are genetics, toxins, head trauma and drug induced reasons

198
Q

cure for parkinsons disease

A

NO known cure

199
Q

how can Parkinson’s be treated

A
200
Q

Levodopa

A

chemical converted to dopamine by neurones

201
Q

Deep brain stimulation- Parkinson’s

A

is a last resort in which the basal ganglia is electrically stimulated

202
Q

two categories of neurotransmitters

A

excitatory and inhibitory
-note that some may do both

203
Q

define a excitatory neurotransmitter

A

When excitatory neurotransmitter binds with these receptor sites it makes it more likely for the post synaptic neuron to fire

204
Q

what is glutamate + function

A

-major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
-when glutamate blinds with these receptor sites it makes it more likely for the post synaptic neuron to fire
ASSOCIATED with
-Cognition
-learning and memory
-behaviour
-movement
-sensations

205
Q

identify the receptor sites for glutamate

A

-NMDA
-AMPA
-kainite

206
Q

Long term potentiation

A

long lasting strengthening of synaptic connections resulting in enhanced or more effective (faster) neurotransmission across the synapse making the post synaptic neurones more likely to fire
-the more the neural pathway is activated the more its strengthened

207
Q

too much glutamate

A

-MND
-abnormal neural development (inappropriate neural connections forming

208
Q

what receptor site is associated with long term potentiation

A

glutamate- receptor site NMDA

209
Q

What does GABA stand for

A

gamma amino butyric acid

210
Q

define an inhibitory neurotransmitter

A

makes the post synaptic neuron less likely to fire

211
Q

GABA function

A

-makes post synaptic neurones less likely to fire
-slows neural transmission- reverses the effects of excitatory neurotransmitters e.g. reduce the stress response

212
Q

low GABA levels

A

High levels of anxiety

213
Q

what is meant by the ‘lock and key process’

A

Receptor sites are specifically designed to only bind with certain neurotransmitters
- means that the receptor site will only respond to specific neurotransmitters and ignore others

214
Q

What are Agonists +eg

A

Substances that increase the release of neurotransmitters or imitate their functioning making their effects on the post synaptic neuron more likely to occur

eg benzodiazepine

215
Q

What are antagonists +eg

A

A substance that inhibits the release of neurotransmitters or blocks receptor sites making it less likely the post synaptic neuron respond to a neurotransmitter

eg snake venom

216
Q

what is the ‘lock’ and what is the ‘key’ in neural transmission

A

lock-receptor site
key-neurotransmitter

217
Q

Neural changes for long term potentiation

A

-increased number of neurotransmitters and more receptor sites

218
Q

characteristics of neurones that have undergone LTP

A

increased receptivity and sensitivity of neurons

219
Q

What is Hebbian learning

A

-learning results from the creation of cell assemblies ie interconnected groups of neurones that form pathways
‘neurones that fire together wire together’

220
Q

Long term depression

A

a long lasting weakening of of synaptic connections, in which the post synaptic neurones becomes less responsive to neurotransmitters

221
Q

what is the importance of LTP and LTD

A

allows for pruning of unwanted neural connections, so that new connections are able to from (have the capacity)

222
Q

Long term depression vs synaptic pruning

A

-LTD is the weakening of connections whereas synaptic pruning is the elimination of synapses (connections)

1/2 Psych (5 decks)

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