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aqa a level psychology > 4.2.3 - Research Methods - Scientific processes > Flashcards

4.2.3 - Research Methods - Scientific processes Flashcards

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1
Q

Research methods

A

The way Psychologists carry out research into areas of Human behaviour.

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2
Q

Androcentric

A

Male focussed

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3
Q

Gynocentric

A

Female focussed

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4
Q

Objective

A

Keeping a critical distance and not influenced by opinion

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5
Q

Validity

A

The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure

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6
Q

Reliability

A

The consistency of research

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7
Q

Experiment

A

Involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable

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8
Q

What are the 2 types of hypothesis?

A
  1. Directional Hypothesis (one-tailed- states direction of effect)
    2.Non-Directional Hypothesis (two-tailed - does not state direction of the effect)
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9
Q

What are the two types of experimental conditions?

A
  1. The control condition
  2. The experimental condition
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10
Q

What is the control condition?

A

The condition where there is no manipulation of the IV.

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11
Q

What is the experimental condition?

A

Where the IV is manipulated.

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12
Q

What does operationalised mean?

A

That the IV and DV are measurable

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13
Q

Extraneous variables

A

Nuisance variables that may affect results e.g. temperature of room, distractions (need to be controlled)

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14
Q

Confounding variables

A

Unwanted variables which might have affected the DV, so we cannot be sure of the true source of the changes to the DV

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15
Q

Experimental design

A

The way in which participants are used in experiments (how they are arranged)

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16
Q

Independent groups

A

2 separate groups of participants experience 2 different conditions of the experiment

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17
Q

Repeated measures

A

All participants experince both conditions of the experiment

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18
Q

Matched pairs

A

Participants paired based on a common variable e.g. IQ, age - Attempts to control for confounding variable of participant variables

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19
Q

Internal validity

A

Refers to whether we can confidentely say the IV being manipulated is influencing the DV

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20
Q

External validity

A

Refers to whether we can apply our results outside of the study e.g. to wider population

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21
Q

Determinism

A

The idea that all behaviour is controlled, influenced by external (or internal) forces. It suggests that humans do not have free will

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22
Q

Random allocation

A

Participants randomly allocated to different experimental conditions to easily distribute participant characteristics

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23
Q

Counterbalancing

A

An attempt to control order effects in a repeated measures design - half participants take part in condition A then B, other half take part in condition B then A

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24
Q

What are the 4 types of experiment?

A
  • laboratory experiments
  • field experiment
  • natural experiments
  • quasi-experiments
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25
Q

What is a laboratory experiment? (and eval)

A

Conducted in highly controlled environments

:) - high level of control - high internal validity
- researcher can establish cause and effect

:( - low external validity - difficult to generalise to real life
- low mundane realism as tasks and environment is artificial
- demand characteristics

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26
Q

What is a field experiment? (and eval)

A

IV is manipulated in a natural, everyday setting.
The researcher goes to the participants’ usual environment instead of a lab

:) - higher mundane realism - natural environment
- ecological validity

:( - loss of control of CV’s and EV’s
-cause and effect difficult to establish
- ethical issues

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27
Q

What is a natural experiment? (and eval)

A

-Takes advantage of a pre-existing independent variable
-The variable would have changed if the experimenter was not interested
-Researcher has no control over the IV and cannot change it - something else causes the IV to vary
-IV - naturally occurring

:) - high external validity
- more opportunities for research

:( - natural occurring events may only happen rarely
- ppts may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions

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28
Q

What is a quasi experiment? (and eval)

A

-Has an IV that is based on an existing difference between people (e.g. age, gender)
-No one has manipulated the IV , it simply exists, and unlike a natural experiment, the IV cannot be changed
-DV may be naturally occurring or devised by the experimenter

:) → often carried out under controlled conditions - control of variables, easy to replicate, high external validity

:( → cannot randomly allocate ppts - may be confounding variables
→ IV not deliberately changed by the researcher so we cannot claim that the IV has caused any observed change

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29
Q

What is a true experiment?

A

-IV is under direct control of the researcher who manipulates it and records the effect on the DV
-Lab and field experiments are considered True experiments

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30
Q

Sampling definiton?

A

How we choose our participants

Ideally should be representative of the target population

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31
Q

What is random sampling?

A

All members of target population have an equal chance of being selected
e.g. names out of a hat, computer generator

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32
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

Every “nth” member of target population is chosen
e.g. every 3rd person on a list or every 5th house on a street

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33
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

Sample reflects proportions of people in certain subgroups
-Different strata that make up a population are identified and then the proportions of the strata are worked out
-Ppts that make up each stratum are selected using random sampling

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34
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

Researcher simply decides to select anyone who is willing and available

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35
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

Participants select themselves to be part of the sample - they volunteer
e.g. researcher places advert in newspaper or online

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36
Q

What are the 5 ethical rules?

A

⮞ Deception - misleading, lying or withholding information from participants
⮞ Right to withdraw - are participants allowed to leave the study when they wish?
⮞ Informed consent - participants are informed what the aim of the study is and what will happen and they then give permission to be a participant and for data to be used
⮞ Protection from harm - ppts should not be placed at any risk - harm can be physical or psychological
⮞ Privacy & confidentiality - participants have the right to control information about themselves

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37
Q

Revision tip for remembering ethical rules?

A

DRIPP

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38
Q

What is a debrief?

A

Participants are made aware of aims and any details hidden from them during the investigation after it has finished

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39
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

A small-scale run of the actual investigation

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40
Q

Why are pilot studies carried out?

A
  • to ‘road test’ the procedure
  • check there are are no issues with the study
  • gives researcher an opportunity to modify the design or procedure
  • saves time and money in the long run
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41
Q

What is a single-blind procedure?

A

⮞ participants not told aim of the research
⮞ controls for demand characteristics

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42
Q

What is a double-blind procedure?

A

⮞ neither the participants or the researcher is aware of aims of study
⮞ controls for researcher bias

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43
Q

What are the 6 types of observation?

A

Naturalistic
Controlled
Covert
Overt
Participant
Non-participant

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44
Q

What is a naturalistic observation (and eval)

A

⮞ take place in the setting or context where the behaviour would usually occur
⮞ all aspects of the environment are free to vary

:) - high external validity
- can be generalised
:( - replication of study may be difficult
- may be uncontrolled extraneous variables

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45
Q

What is a controlled observation? (and eval)

A

⮞ some control over variables, including manipulating variables to observe effects and also control of extraneous variables

:) - extraneous variables are less of a factor
- replication is easier
:( - may produce findings that cannot be as readily applied to real-life settings

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46
Q

What is a covert observation? (and eval)

A

⮞ participants are unaware they are being observed
⮞ observed in secret

:) - as ppts are unaware they are being observed the problem of participant reactivity is removed
- ensures behaviour will be natural - increases validity of the data gathered
:( - ethics of the study may be questionable - may not want their behaviours recorded

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47
Q

What is an overt observation? (and eval)

A

⮞ participants are aware they are being observed
⮞ have given informed consent beforehand

:) - more ethically acceptable
:( - behaviour of ppts may change as they know they are being observed

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48
Q

What is a participant observation? (and eval)

A

⮞ observer becomes part of the group they are studying

:) - gives researcher increased insight
- increased validity of findings
:( - researcher may come to identify too strongly with those they are studying and lose objectivity
- may be impractical to join certain groups

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49
Q

What is a non-participant observation? (and eval)

A

⮞ researcher remains separate from the group they are studying and records their behaviour in a more objective manner

:) - allows researcher to remain objective psychological distance
:( - may lose valuable insight as they are too far removed from the people and behaviour they are studying

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50
Q

What are structured observations?

A
  • observations are quantified
  • uses a pre-determined list of behaviours and sampling methods
  • a behavioural checklist is created
  • there is a structure to the observation
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51
Q

What are unstructured observations?

A
  • write down everything you see - no structure
  • produces accounts of behaviour that are rich in detail
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52
Q

What are behavioural categories?

A
  • when a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measureable
  • target behaviour should be precisely defined and made observable and measureable
  • e.g. affection could be broken down into smiling, hugging, kissing
  • no ambiguity or overlap - e.g. grinning and smiling
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53
Q

What is event sampling? (And eval)

A
  • counting the number of times a behaviour occurs in a target individual group
    E.g. counting the number of times players disagree with a referee in a football match

:) - useful when a behaviour happens quite infrequently so could be missed with time sampling
:( - if event is too complex then observer may overlook important details

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54
Q

What is time sampling? (And eval)

A
  • recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame
    E.g. making a note of what one individual is doing every 30 seconds

:) - reduces amount of observations that have to be made
:( - may be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole

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55
Q

What is inter-observer reliability?

A
  • at least two researchers
  • must be consistent in their judgement
  • use and agree on behavioural categories
  • correlate their observations
  • will ensure inter-observer reliability
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56
Q

What are the 2 types of self report methods?

A
  • questionaires
  • interviews
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57
Q

What are the 2 types of questions?

A

Open questions
- no fixed answers, respondents can answer in any way they want
- produces qualitative data which is rich in detail but may be difficult to analyse

Closed questions
- fixed number of responses
- could be yes/no questions of a scale
- usually easy to analyse but may lack depth and detail

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58
Q

Types of closed questions?

A
  • Likert scale - scale of usually 5 points
  • Rating scale - respondants identify a value that represents their strength of feeling about a particular topic
  • Fixed choice option - includes list of options, respondants are required to indicate those that apply to them
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59
Q

Strengths of questionaires?

A
  • if close-ended questions are used, it is easy to analyse
  • can gather large numbers of results - larger sample
  • cost-effective
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60
Q

Limitations of questionaires?

A
  • responses may not be truthful
  • demand characteristics
  • social desirability bias
  • response bias - replying a similar way for everything
  • data may lack validity
  • boredom - answering too quickly
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61
Q

What are things to remember when creating a questionnaire/questions?

A

Overuse of jargon - don’t overuse technical terms, keep questions simple and easy to understand

Emotive language and Leading quesitons - don’t let your attitiude become clear in the questions, leading questions guide respondents to particular answers

Double barrelled questions and Double Negatives - double-barrelled questions contain 2 questions in one so respondants may agree with only half of thr question , double negatives can be hard to decipher

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62
Q

What are the 3 types of interview?

A

Structured interviews
Pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order

Unstructured interviews
Works like a conversation - there are no set of questions. Interviewee can expand and elaborate their answers

Semi-structured interviews
A list of questions worked out in advance but follow-up questions can be asked e.g. job interview

63
Q

What is an interview schedule?

A

A list of questions (should be standardised to reduce risk of interviewer bias)

64
Q

What is quantitative data? (And eval)

A
  • numerical data
  • usually in the form of participant scores
    E.g. number of words a participant can recall

:) - relatively simple to analyse
- comparisons between groups and easily drawn
- tends to be more objective and less open to bias
:( - much narrower in scope and meaning
- lacks ecological validity

65
Q

What is qualitative data? (And eval)

A
  • expressed in words - description,thoughts, feelings and opinions
    E.g. transcripts from interviews, extracts from a diary, noted from an unstructured interview

:) - rich in detail
- gives the ppt the ability to develop their thoughts and feelings
- has greater external validity than quantitative data
:( - often difficult to analyse
- difficult to summarise statistically so patterns and comparisons are hard to come by
- often subjective and open to interpretation

66
Q

What is primary data? (And eval)

A
  • original data that has been collected specifically for purpose of investigation by researcher
  • first hand data
  • gathered by conducting an experiment, interview or observation

:) - fits the job
- authentic data obtained from ppts themselves for purpose of a particular investigation
- questionnaires and interview can be designed to specifically target the info the researcher requires
:( - time and effort
- expensive

67
Q

What is secondary data? (And eval)

A
  • collected by someone other than the person conducting the research
  • already exists before the psychologist begins their research
  • often has already been subject to statistical testing and therefore significance is known
  • may be located in journal articles, books or websites, statistical info held by government, population records etc

:) - may be inexpensive and easily accessed requiring minimal effort
:( - may be substantial variation in quality and accuracy of secondary data
- may be outdated or incomplete
- content of data may not match researcher’s needs or objectives

68
Q

What is a correlation?

A
  • a mathmatical technique
  • a relationship between two variables, called co variables
  • association, NOT causation
  • correlations are plotted on a scattergram
69
Q

What are the 3 types of correlation?

A
  • negative correlation - as one variable increases the other decreases
  • positive correlation - as one co-variable increases so does the other
  • zero/no correlation - no relationship between co-variables
70
Q

What are the measures of central tendency?

A
  • mean
  • median
  • mode

(averages)

71
Q

What is the mean? (And eval)

A
  • add up all the scores and divide by the total number of scores
  • the most sensitive measure of central tendency - includes ALL scores

:) - so it is more representitive of the data as a whole
:( - BUT can be distorted by extreme values

72
Q

What is the median? (And eval)

A
  • the middle value in a data set when scores are arranged highest to lowest
  • in an even number of scores the median is halfway between the two middle scores

:) - extreme scores do not affect it and it is easy to calculate
:( - BUT it is less sensitive than the mean - not all scores included in final calculation

73
Q

What is the mode? (And eval)

A
  • the most frequently occurring score/value in the data set
  • in some sets there may be more than one mode (bi-modal) or none at all

:) - very easy to calculate
:( - BUT it is a crude measure - not really representative of data as a whole

74
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

Cues that might indicate the study aim to participants, leading to a change in behaviour of participants and thus can lead to results being inaccurate (e.g. biased).

75
Q

What are descriptive statistics?

A

Graphs, tables and summary statistics
Help us to identify trends and analyse sets of data

( measures of central tendency, measures of dispersion )

76
Q

What are the measures of dispersion?

A

Range
Standard deviation

Based on the ‘spread of scores’ - how far scores vary and differ from one another.

77
Q

What is the range?

A

Take the lowest value from the highest value plus 1.
(adding 1 is a mathematical correction)

:) - it is very easy to calculate
:( - only takes into account the two most extreme values so may be unrepresentative

78
Q

What is the standard deviation?

A

A more sophisticated measure of dispersion.

  • tells us how far the scores deviate from the mean
  • the larger the S.D the greater the dispersion or spread within a set of data
  • large spread - not all ppts were affected by the IV in the same way
  • low standard deviations - data is tightly clustered around the mean (all ppts may have responded in a similar way)

:) - S.D is much more precise - includes all values
:( - can be easily distorted by a single extreme value

79
Q

Why do we need to use a statistical test?

A

To see whether the results match the significant level so we can say that they are significant or not.

80
Q

What does it mean if something is statistically significant?

A

It means the results were unlikely to have occurred due to chance.

81
Q

What is the accepted level of probability in Psychology

A

0.05 or 5%.

This is the level at which the researcher decides to accept the research hypothesis or not.

82
Q

When may a stricter significance such as 0.01 be used?

A

When the research may involve a human cost, such as new drugs being trailled, or when a particular investigation cannot be repeated again.

83
Q

What does the critical value do?

A

Decides whether the result is significant or not.

84
Q

Where can the critical value be found?

A

On table of critical values.

85
Q

What information do we need before using a table of critical values?

A
  1. The significance level desired (always 0.05 unless the experiment cannot be repeated)
  2. The number of participants in the investigation (the N value)
  3. Whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional
86
Q

What is required for a sign test result to be regarded as significant?

A

The calculated value has to be equal to or lower than the critical value.

87
Q

What requirements does an experiment need to meet in order for the sign test to be used?

A
  1. We need to be looking for a difference rather than an association (so is not used for correlations)
  2. We need to have used a repeated measures design
  3. We need data that is organised into categories
88
Q

What are the steps of the sign test?

A
  1. Count the number of increases (+) or decreases (-) in results. Ignore any 0s or where there is no change in results.
  2. See which is lower of the two numbers
  3. This is the S value
  4. Compare this with value on the Critical Values table
  5. Remember the N value will ignore any ppts who stayed the same
  6. If the value is equal to or less than the value on the CV table, we can accept the results as significant.

This means we can accept the alternative hypothesis (the experimental hypothesis).

89
Q

What is a meta-analysis? (and eval)

A

A form of research using secondary data a from large numbers of studies, using the same research questions and methods.
- researchers may simply discuss findings/conclusions - qualitative analysis
- may also use a quantitative approach and perform statistical analysis of the combined data (may involve calculating an effect size)

:) - Allows us to view data with much more confidence and results can be generalised across much larger populations.
:( - May be prone to publication bias. Researcher may not select all relevant studies, leaving out those with negative or non-significant results.

90
Q

Benefits of correlation?

A
  • useful as a starting point for research
  • assessing strength and direction of relationship provides precise and quantifiable measure of how things are related
  • may suggest ideas for further research if variables are strongly related
  • no need for controlled environment
  • inexpensive to carry out
91
Q

Drawbacks of correlation?

A
  • studies can only tell us how variables are related but not why
  • cannot demonstrate cause and effect as we do not know which variable is causing the other to change
  • may be another untested variable that is causing the relationship between the two variables (intervening variables)
92
Q

When is a bar chart used?

A

When data is divided into categories (discrete data)
Most suitable graph to show the difference in mean values

93
Q

What is a normal distribution?

A

A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern. The mean, mode and median are all located at the highest peak.

94
Q

What is a skewed distribution?

A

A spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data all clusters to one end.

95
Q

What is a positive skew?

A

A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the positive (right) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the left.
e.g a very difficult test which most people get low marks in with only a handful of students at the higher end

96
Q

What is a negative skew?

A

A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the negative (left) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the right.

The mean is pulled to the left.

97
Q

What is the null hypothesis?

A

There is no difference between conditions.

If a result is not significant we accept the null and reject the alternative.

98
Q

What is the alternative hypothesis/experimental hypothesis?

A

There will be a difference between conditions.

If a result is significant we accept the alternative/experiment hypothesis and reject the null.

99
Q

What do correlation coefficients tell us?

A

The strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.

1 is a strong positive
-1 is a strong negative

100
Q

What is a paradigm?

A

A shared set of assumptions and methods.

Natural sciences have this e.g. biology and physics.

101
Q

Does psychology have a paradigm?

A

Not really - psychology is a ‘pre-science’ and has too much disagreement and conflicting approaches.

102
Q

What is a paradigm shift?

A

Progress within a science.
- revolution takes place
- accepted paradigm questioned
- new assumptions taken on

Psychology may have had this - Wundt’s Introspection to the Behaviourists to cognitive neuroscience.

103
Q

What is involved in theory construction?

A
  • set of general laws or principles that are able to explain particular events or behaviours
  • happen through gathering evidence via direct observation
104
Q

What is falsifiability?

A

The possibility of being proven false through hypothesis testing.
Theories which survive attempts to falsify them are the strongest.

105
Q

What does replicability mean?

A

Findings must be repeatable across different circumstances and contexts in order for a theory to be trusted.
Determines reliability and validity.

106
Q

What does the empirical method focus on?

A

Objectivity

  • keep ‘critical distance’
  • don’t allow opinions or bias to intrude
  • lab experiments tend to be the most objective
  • something cannot be scientific unless it has been empirically tested and verified
107
Q

Is psychology objective?

A

In some cases, however, some methods used are subjective and non-scientific.

108
Q

What is a type 1 error?

A

When the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted when it should be the other way around.

  • in reality the Null hypothesis is ‘true”
  • a false positive/optimistic error
109
Q

What is a type 2 error?

A

The null hypothesis is accepted and the alertative hypothesis is rejected when it should be the other way around.

  • in reality the alternative hypothesis is ‘true’
  • a false negative/pessimistic error
110
Q

Why may a type 1 error occur?

A

If the significance level is too lenient/too high.

e.g. 0.1 or 10% rather than 0.05 or 5%

111
Q

Why may a type 2 error occur?

A

If the significance level is too strict/too low

e.g. 0.01 or 1%

112
Q

What are the 3 factors to consider before choosing a statistical test?

A
  1. Difference or Correlation
  2. Experimental design (unrelated or related design)
  3. Levels of measurement
113
Q

What does unrelated design include?

A

Independent groups

114
Q

What does related design include?

A

Matched pairs
Repeated measures

115
Q

What can quantitative data be divided into?

A

Nominal data
Ordinal data
Interval data

116
Q

What is nominal data?

A
  • categorical
  • discrete - one item can only appear in one of the categories
117
Q

What is ordinal data?

A
  • ordered in some way
  • usually to do with rating scales/judging scores
  • slightly subjective
118
Q

What is interval data?

A
  • based on numerical scales
  • include units of equal, precisely defined size
  • usually measurements you would find in maths or other sciences
119
Q

What are parametric tests?

A

More powerful and robust statistical tests.

  • only for interval level data
  • deal with data with a normal distribution
  • homogeneity of variance
  • set of scores in each condition should have similar dispersion or spread

(unrelated and related t-tests, pearson’s r)

120
Q

What is the Mann-Whitney test and when would it be used?

A

Looking for difference

Use for:
- unrelated design
- ordinal data

121
Q

What is the Wilcoxon test and when would it be used?

A

Test of difference

Use for:
- related design
- ordinal data

122
Q

What is the Unrelated T-test and when would it be used?

A

Test of difference

Use when:
- unrelated design
- interval data
(parametric test)

123
Q

What is the Related-test and when would it be used?

A

Test of difference

Use when:
- related design
- interval data
(parametric test)

124
Q

What is the Sign test and when would it be used?

A

Test of difference

Use when:
- related design
- nominal data

125
Q

What is the Spearman’s Rho test and when would it be used?

A

Test of correlation

Use when:
- ordinal data

126
Q

What is Pearson’s R and when would it be used?

A

Test of correlation

Use when:
- interval data
(parametric test)

127
Q

What is Chi-Squared and when would it be used?

A

Test of difference or association

Use when:
- nominal data
- unrelated design

128
Q

Why is a peer review carried out?

A
  • makes results more reliable
  • eliminates mistakes
  • reduces bias
  • can receive money through peer-review
129
Q

What is involved in peer review?

A

Peer review is a quality control process used by publications to help ensure that only high quality, methodologically sound information is presented in the publication.
In the peer review process, material submitted for publication is sent to individuals who are experts on the topic.

130
Q

What is concurrent validity?

A

Concurrent validity is usually measured by the correlation between a new test and an existing test to demonstrate whether the new test correlates well with the existing test.

131
Q

What are the implications of psychological research for the economy?

A

How the knowledge and understanding gained from psychological research (theories and attitudes) may contribute towards our economic prosperity.

132
Q

How has attachment research impacted the economy?

A
  • Bowlby’s WHO report in the 1950s suggested that babies needed constant care from the mother for healthy psychological development.
    This led to ‘stay at home’ mothering.
  • However, later evidence has shown that good substitute care in nurseries or by other family members e.g. father, does not have a detrimental effect on social development.
  • This means the mother can happily return to work after having a child, remaining economically active.
133
Q

How has psychopathology research impacted the economy?

A

Anything to do with treatment and people’s ability to work and contribute as effective members of society would be relevant.

e.g. studies often compare the effectiveness of different therapies - if research shows that people with a disorder such as depression are less likely to suffer a relapse after having CBT, then this may be better for the long-term as they are missing less work, even though in the short term it is more expensive.

134
Q

How has memory research impacted the economy?

A

Any evidence relating to more efficient use of public money would be relevant.

e.g. research showing the cognitive interview facilitates accuracy of eyewitness reporting enables better use of police time and resources.

135
Q

What is the order of a scientific report?

A
  1. Abstract
  2. Introduction
  3. Method
  4. Results
  5. Discussion
  6. Referencing
136
Q

What is included in an abstract?

A

A short summary at the front of a journal.

Includes aims, hypotheses, method, results and conclusions.

137
Q

What is included in an introduction?

A
  • Literature review of general area of investigation
  • Includes relevant theories, concepts and studies related to current study
  • Might include aims and hypotheses towards the end
138
Q

What is included in the method?

A

Split into several sub-sections and should include enough detail that it can be replicated.
- Design
- Sample
- Apparatus/materials
- Procedure
- Ethics

139
Q

What is included in the results?

A
  • Summary of key findings
  • Descriptive statistics
  • Inferential statistics
  • Raw data goes in the appendix
  • If qualitative methods used, analysis of themes
140
Q

What is included in the discussion? (this is the biggest section)

A
  • Results/findings summarised
  • Discussed in context of evidence and other research presented in introduction
  • Discuss any limitations and how they might be addressed in the future
  • Wider implications of the research discussed
  • Has it made contributions to the field?
141
Q

What is included in referencing?

A
  • Full details of source material that was used or cited
  • Journals, books, websites etc
142
Q

How do you reference?

A

Surname of author COMMA Initial of Author FULL STOP (Date) Book or journal title FULL STOP Place of publication FULL STOP Publisher FULL STOP

e.g. Duck, S. (1992) Human Relationships. London. Sage.

143
Q

What is a case study?

A

Usually analysing unusual individuals/groups or events but might also focus on more typical cases.

144
Q

How are case studies carried out?

A
  • Usually involves producing qualitative data
  • Case history constructed (interviews, questionnaires, observations)
  • May use experiments producing quantitative data

Usually take place over long period of time (longitudinal study).

145
Q

Strengths of case studies?

A
  • Rich and detailed
  • Greater insight into unusual behaviour
  • Can give us greater insight into ‘normal’ behaviour
  • Can help generate hypothesis for future study
  • Ecological validity
146
Q

Limitations of case studies?

A
  • Small sample
  • Difficult to generalise
  • Subjective (open for interpretation)
  • Personal accounts might actually be inaccurate
  • Evidence is low in validity (due to low control/internal validity)
147
Q

What is content analysis?

A
  • Observational research
  • Studies people indirectly through communications they have produced
  • Aims to summarise and describe communication in a systematic way
  • From this conclusions can be drawn
148
Q

Examples of content analysis material?

A

Spoken interaction - recordings, conversations, speech/presentations
Written communication - texts, emails, instant messenger
Media - books, TV, films

149
Q

Why is coding used in content analysis?

A

Some data sets are very big (e.g. transcripts from long interviews)
This information needs to be categorised into meaningful units.

e.g. counting up number of times a word or phrase is used
This produces quantitative data.

150
Q

What is thematic analysis and how is it carried out?

A

Using content analysis to produce qualitative data.

  • Involves themes (any idea that reoccurs during the communication)
  • Likely to be more descriptive than coding units
  • These themes are developed into broader categories

Once these themes have been identified a new set of data can be produced to test the validity of the themes and categories.
From this the researcher can write up their report using quotes from the data to illustrate the themes.

151
Q

Strengths of content analysis?

A
  • Can avoid ethical issues associated with many types of research
  • Much of what will be studied might be in the public domain
  • Usually high in external validity - especially private communication
  • Can produce both quantitative and qualitative data
152
Q

Limitations of content analysis?

A
  • People tend to be studied indirectly - usually analysed out of context
  • Researcher may attribute opinions and attitudes to the speaker/writer which were not originally intended - subjectivity
  • Thematic analysis in particular can suffer from problems with objectivity
153
Q

2 types of content analysis?

A
  1. Coding (quantitative)
  2. Thematic analysis (qualitative)

aqa a level psychology (11 decks)

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