4.2.1 - Approaches Flashcards
Introspection
The examination or observation of one’s own mental and emotional processes.
Structuralism
A theory of consciousness that seeks to analyse the elements of mental experiences
Developed by Wilhelm Wundt
Conditioned
Learned
Unconditioned
Natural
Classical Conditioning
A type of learning that happens unconsciously through association(involves stimulus and response).
Operant Conditioning
A method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behaviour (learning is an active process)
Positive reinforcement
Receiving a reward when certain behaviour is performed - increased likelihood behaviour will happen again.
Negative Reinforcement
Occurs when an animal/human avoids something unpleasant - increased likelihood behaviour will happen again.
Punishment
Unpleasant consequence of a behaviour - decreased likelihood behaviour will be performed again.
Behaviourism
The psychological approach of observing and controlling behaviour.
Inference
An assumption about mental processes. Psychologists cannot directly observe a mental process such as memory so have to infer from behaviour.
What did Ivan Pavlov do?
Found dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a. Bell if it was repeatedly presented at the same time as they were given food.
Cognitive Approach
Investigates memory, perception, thinking
Information processing model/approach
Suggests that information flowed through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval.
What is a schema?
Mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing
May be unhelpful as:
→ can distort our interpretations of sensory information
→ faulty conclusions/unhelpful behaviour
→ can lead to perceptual errors
What is Cognitive Neuroscience?
The scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes. (Combination of biological and cognitive approach)
Experiment
Involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable
Vicarious reinforcement
It is indirect learning. It is when an individual observes the behaviour of others. They may imitate behaviour but in general imitation occurs only if behaviour is seen to be rewarded (reinforced) rather than punished
What is SLT
Social Learning Theory - the bridge between Behaviourism and the Cognitive Approach.
According to Bandura there are 4 Mediational Processes. What are they?
1.Attention
2.Retention
3.Motor Reproduction
4.Motivation
What is attention as a mediational process?
The extent to which we notice certain behaviours.
What is Retention as a mediational process?
How well the behaviour is remembered.
What is Motor Reproduction as a mediational process ?
Ability of the observer to perform the behaviour.
What is Motivation as a mediational process?
The will to perform the behaviour. Often determined by whether the behaviour is rewarded or punished.
How did Bandura investigate social learning theory?
Bobo doll experiment
What was Banduras experiment in 1961?
He recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave in an aggressive way towards a Bobo Doll. The adult hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it. When these children were later observed playing with the various toys, including the Bobo Doll, they behaved a lot more aggressively towards the doll and the other toys than those who had observed a non-aggressive adult.
What was Bandura and Walters experiment in 1963?
Showed videos to children where an adult behaved aggressively towards the Bobo Doll.
One group of children saw the adult praised for their behaviour.
A second group saw the adult punished for their aggression towards the doll by being told off.
A third group (control group) saw the aggression without any consequences. When given their own Bobo Doll to play with, the first group showed much more aggression, followed by the third group, then the second.
What are assumptions in the Biological Approach?
-Everything psychological is at first biological
-The mind lives in the brain
-All thoughts feelings and cognitions have a biological basis
What do behaviour geneticists study?
Whether behavioural characteristics are inherited in the same way as a physical characteristics
What are monozygotic twins?
identical twins, share 100% DNA
What are dizygotic twins?
non-identical twins, share 50% DNA
What is a concordance rate?
Likelihood that if one twin has a certain behaviour then the other will too
What is a genotype?
A person’s actual genetic makeup. The genetic code in the cells
What is a phenotype?
The way genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics. The phenotype depends on the genotype, but can also be influenced by environmental factors
What is Phenylketonuria (PKU)?
A rare genetic disorder. If left unchecked it causes severe learning difficulties. If detected early enough, the child can be placed on a restricted diet and will develop normally without any complications.
Who created the theory of natural selection?
Charles Darwin
What is the theory of natural selection?
Genetically determined behaviour which enhances survival and reproduction will continue in future generations. Selection occurs because it gives the possessor advantages, possessor is more likely to survive. If they survive but do not reproduce, the traits do not remain in the gene pool.
Evaluation of the biological approach
:) Scientific methods of investigation - includes scanning techniques such as fMRIs and EEGs, family & twin studies, drug trials, reliable, objective data.
:) Real life application - Understanding of biochemical processes has led to development of psychoactive drugs, these treat serious illnesses
:) Causal conclusions - explanation for mental illness, action of neurotransmitters in the brain. Evidence from studies show that a particular drug reduces symptoms of a mental disorder. Thus assumes that lacking the neurochemical in the drug causes the disorder.
:( Determinist - sees human behaviour as governed by internal, biological causes over which we have no control. Implications for the legal system, offenders can blame the gene.
:( Cannot separate nature and nurture - Confounding variables, twins could be exposed to similar environmental factors. In research studies non-identical twins often show higher concordance rates than pairs of ordinary siblings
What is the conscious mind?
This is the part of the mind we are aware of
What is the unconscious mind?
Contains biological drives and instincts. These influence our behaviour and personality.
Contains threatening/disturbing memories which have been repressed.
What is the pre-conscious mind?
Contains thoughts and ideas we might become aware of in dreams and slips of the tongue (parapraxes or “Freudian Slips”)
What is a tripartite?
structure of personality
What are the 3 personality’s in the tripartite?
The ID
The Ego
The Superego
What is the ID?
Primitive part of our personality, operates on the pleasure principle. Only the id is present at birth. Selfish. Instant gratification.
What is the ego?
Works on the reality principle. Mediator between Id and Superego. Reduces conflict between the two and employs defence mechanisms. Develops around 2 years old.
What is the superego?
Based on morality principle. Represents moral standards of child’s same-sex parent. Punishes the ego for wrongdoing. Formed at the end of the phallic stage, 5 years old.
What are the 5 psychosexual stages?
Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latency
Genital
What happens if the conflicts during these stages aren’t resolved?
They wont progress successfully to the next stage. Any conflict left unresolved leads to fixation.
What is the oral stage?
Age: 0 - 1
Focus: mouth, tongue, lips
Major Development: Weaning off of breast feeding or formula
Adult Fixation Example: Smoking, overeating
What is the anal stage?
Age: 1 - 3
Focus: anus
Major Development: toilet training
Adult Fixation Example: orderliness, messiness
What is the phallic stage?
Age: 3 - 6
Focus: genitals
Major Development: Resolving Oedipus or Electra complex
Adult Fixation Example: Deviancy, sexual dysfunction
What is the latency stage?
Age: 6 - 12
Focus: None
Major Development: developing defence mechanisms
Adult Fixation Example: none
What is the genital stage?
Age: 12+
Focus: Genitals
Major Development: reaching full sexual maturity
Adult Fixation Example: if all stages were successfully completed then the person should be sexually matured and mentally healthy
What is the Oedipus complex?
Phallic stage - little boys develop incestuous feelings towards mother and murderous hatred for their rival, the father. They fear their father will castrate them. To resolve this conflict they repress feelings for mother and identify with father. They take on his gender role and moral values.
What is the Electra complex?
Girl in the phallic stage with penis envy. Desire their father, hate their mother. Give up desire for father over time and replace desire for penis with desire for a baby, identifying with mother.
What is the case study of Little Hans?
5 year old boy with a phobia of horses after seeing one collapse in the street. Freud suggested this phobia was a form of displacement. His actual fear was of his father. Horses merely symbolic representation of Hans’ real unconscious fear: fear of castration (Oedipus complex)
What are the 3 defence mechanisms?
Repression - forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind
Denial - Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality
Displacement - Transferring feelings from true sources of distressing emotion onto a substitute target.
What are the advantages of the psychodynamic approach?
-Explanatory Power: had huge influence on psychology and contemporary western thoughts. Has been used to explain wide range of phenomena, abnormal behaviour, moral development, gender.
-Practical Application: Freud created new form of therapy, psychoanalysis. Hypnosis, dream analysis. Forerunner to many modern psychotherapies.
What are the disadvantages of the psychodynamic approach?
- Case studies: Hard to generalise, not possible to make universal claims based on a small number of ppts. Highly subjective. Unlikely other researches would have drawn the same conclusion from Little Hans. Lack scientific rigour
- Untestable concepts: Unfalsifiable. Concepts occur unconsciously so difficult to test.
- Socially sensitive: Psychoanalysis criticised as inappropriate and potentially harmful for those with serious mental disorders.
- Psychic determinism: No such thing as an accident, even slip of the younger is driven by unconscious forces and has deep symbolic meaning. Free will is an illusion.
What is the humanistic approach?
Emerged in the 1950s and challenged the Behaviourist and Psychodynamic approaches.
What does the humanistic approach state about free will?
-Humans are self-determining
-We have free will
-Does not mean we are unaffected by external circumstances. But we are active agents.
-Have the ability to determine our own development
What is self-actualisation?
Every person has innate tendency to achieve their full potential. This is what we strive towards.
What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
In order to achieve primary goal of self-actualisation we meet lower deficiency needs.
-Physiological
-Safety and Security
-Love and Belongingness
-Self Esteem
-Self-actualisation
All these levels must be achieved before one can reach self-actualisation. Not everyone will manage this due to psychological barriers.
What is the concept of ‘The Self’?
-Put forward by Rogers
-‘Way a person sees themselves
-For personal growth to be achieved a person’s concept of self must be equivalent to ideal self
What is congruence?
a ‘fit’ between self and ideal self
What is incongruence?
Occurs when the gap between the self and ideal self is too big, self-actualisation is not reached.
What is client centred therapy?
-Developed from rogers to reduce the gap.
-Many issues as adults have roots in childhood
-Can be explained by lack of unconditional positive regard from our parents
-Parents who sets boundaries or limits on their love for child, conditions of worth
-Sets up child for psychological problems in the future.
-Therapists job is to give clients unconditional positive regard they had failed to receive as a child
What are the advantages of the humanistic approach?
- Not reductionist: Does not break up behaviour and experience into smaller components like other theories do. Advocates holism. Subjective experience can only be understood by looking at the whole person. Could be considered to have more validity. Looks at human behaviour in its real life context.
- Positive approach: ‘Bringing the person back to psychology’. Promotes positive image of the human condition. Optimistic alternative to negative psychological theories. Sees all people as good and free to work towards their potential.
What are the disadvantages of the humanistic approach?
- Limited application: Little real-world application → Maslow’s hierarchy of need has been used to explain motivation BUT approach has limited impact within discipline of psychology as a whole - not comprehensive and lacks scientific evidence
- Untestable concepts: Vague and abstract ideas, difficult to test scientifically. Self actualisation and congruence.
- Cultural bias: more associated with individualist cultures in the west than collectivist cultures.
In what order were the approaches created?
Psychodynamic approach (1900s) → Behaviourist approach (1913) → Humanistic approach (1950s) → Cognitive approach (1950s) → Social learning theory (1960s) → Biological approach (1980 onwards) → Cognitive neuroscience
What does cognitive neuroscience involve?
How biological structures influence mental states.
Evaluation of the behaviourist approach?
:) - Scientific credibility → brought language and methods of natural sciences into psychology, focuses on measurable behaviour in highly controlled lab settings, studies objective and easily replicated.
:) - Real-life application → token economy systems, treatment of phobias.
:( - Animals/humans seen as passive and machine-like responders to the environment → have little or no conscious insight into their behaviour unlike other approaches such as SLT.
:( - Environmental determinism → sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned.
:( - Ethical and practical issues for animals → unethical, cannot give consent, difficult to generalise findings.
Evaluation of the cognitive approach?
:) - Uses scientific and objective methods → highly controlled lab experiment producing objective data = high internal validity.
:) - Cognitive neuroscience → enabled two fillers of biology and cognitive psychology to come together, study of the mind has established a credible scientific basis.
:) - Less determinist than other approaches → soft determinism - recognises that our cognitive system can only operate within the limits of what we know but we are free to think before responding to a stimulus.
:( - Machine reductionism → ignored influence of human emotion and motivation on cognitive system and how this may affect our ability to process information.
:( - Fails at application to real-life → can only infer mental processes and observable behaviour, occasionally suffers from being too abstract and theoretical in nature. Also, experimental studies use artificial stimuli = lacks external validity HOWEVER :) has led to the development of AI
Evaluation of SLT?
:) - Places importance on cognitive factors in learning → Humans store info about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions - humans do not rely solely on effects of own actions - more comprehensive explanation by recognising meditational processes.
:) - Explains cultural differences in behaviour → SLT can account for how children learn from other individuals and through the media, can explain how cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies, has proved useful in understanding range of behaviour.
:( - Reciprocal determinism.
:( - Over-reliance from lab studies → Ppts. May respond with demand characteristics - it was obvious what the children were expected to do in Bobo Doll study - lacks ecological validity/external validity.
:( - Underestimates the influence of biological factors - little reference to impact of biological factors. In the Bobo doll experiment discovered that boys were more aggressive than girls.
Evaluation of biological approach?
:) - Scientific methods of investigation → includes scanning techniques such as fMRIs and EEGs, family and twin studies, drug trails, not open to bias and based on reliable, objective data.
:) - Real-life application → Understanding of biochemical processes has led to development of Psychoactive drug: these treats serious illnesses, not effective for all patients but has helped many, can manage condition and live a relatively normal life.
:( - Causal conclusions → Evidence from studies that show particular drug reduces symptoms of mental disorder, assuming that lack of serotonin causes this disorder - similar to assuming headaches are caused by lack of paracetamol → discovering association does not mean that one is a cause.
:( - Determinist - implications for legal system
:( - Cannot separate nature and nurture - twins exposed to similar environmental conditions
