4. ATTRACTION and RELATIONSHIPS Flashcards
How is attraction related to them ( as in the other person) (e.g. physical attractiveness)
physically - face, smell, body, consequences
What does facial symmetry reflect?
“average” features
what faces then to be more attractive?
average faces
what is considered an average face?
facial proportions (symmetry) removal of individual/unique blemishes and marks
what is the more consistent aspect of an average face that is related to attractiveness?
removal of individual/unique blemishes and marks (Brain, Gruendl, Marberger & Scherber, 2001)
what sort of unique features can be considered attractive?
(Alley & Cunningham, 1991)
- “child-like” features (baby faced)
- for women: large yees and prominent cheekbones
- for men: prominent chin
what can scent indicate in both men and women?
difference in people’s immuse systems, specifically the major histocompatibility comples (MHC)
what is the major histocompatibility complex?
defence against parasites and avoids ibbreeding
what can scent indicate in women?
it can indicate when they are fertile, an indicator thats more likely sex will lead to procreation
what did Thornhill et al (2003) do an experiment on?
women and men smelled t-shirts that had been worn for 2 days by people pf the other sex.
He performed genetic analysis of MHC and rated scent pleasantness ad sexibess (combined)
what did thornhill et al (2003) discover about men smelling women?
men preferred women with scents that indicated MHC dissimilarity and indications that conception was more likely (fertile perios
what did thornhil et al (2003) discover about women smelling men?
women preferred men with scents that indicated more diversity in MHC (containing dominant and recessibe geneses) which can increase disease resistance in offspring
what does a .7 waist to hip ration indicate about women?
suggests lower likelihood of childbirth problems
what is the more attractive waist to hip ratio for women?
.7
what is the attractive waist to hip ratio for men?
.9
is there a difference between how men see a woman’s waist to hip ratio and how a lesbian or bisexual woman sees another woman’s waisst to hip ratio?
Nope. however there is a preference for heavier bodies than hetersexual men/women
what is the key element of universal physical attractiveness?
waist to hip ratio and symmetry
what are the more attractive men and women percieved to be with regard to consequences?
(Dion et al, 1972)
- more successful dominant and intelligent
- More socially skilled
- Better parents, less likely to divorce
- have more fulfilling social and professional lives
Who do people tend to want relationships with?
others of similar attractiveness.
Thus there do seem to be “leagues” of attractiveness
What did Walster, Aronson, Abrams & Rottman (1966) discover?
that attractiveness was the best predictor that people would meet up again
What can influence perceptions of physical attractiveness?
liking on non-physical dimensions this is known as a “cycle” of attractiveness
when is attraction greater (non-physically)?
to people whose attitudes and values are similar to our own. Thus similarities attract more than opposites.
what makes interactions easier?
perceived commonalities which validate who we are
true of false, similarities grow over time?
True
What did Bruber-Baldinin et al, 1995 do
did a 21 year longitudinal study and fond that attitudes and mental abilities of couples became more similar the longer they were together
what does it mean when “opposites attract”?
when people are attracted characteristics that they value but lac themselves.
what is involved in situation attractiveness?
proximity, transfer of arousal, reactance
what is proximity?
we tend to like people we interact with fequently
why do we like people we interact with frequently?
greater chance of interaction - getting to know the person
Er interact more frequently with those around us a lot
so long as they are not assertive
what theory is proximity (with regard to attraction) related to
the mere exposure effect. which provides that we tend to like things more when we are exposed to them frequently
what is transfer of arousal?
when we are attracted to people who are present when we experience psychological arousal. this is called misattribution of arousal
when does transfer of arousal occur?
when doing an exciting or dangerous activity together which increases arousal (adrenaline). sometimes attribute some of this arousal to the presence of another person rather than the activity
What is reactance with regard to situational attractiveness?
does the difficulty of being together contribute to attraction?
what is an example of reactance attractivenesss?
Romeo and Juliette
how do relationships become closer?
through shared activities, self disclosure and sexual activities
how do shared activities contribute to bringing a relationship closer?
allows for spending time together doing enjoyable activities or shared preferences
how does self disclosure being a relationship closer?
revealing aspects of self; accepting disclosures of the other; experience as intimacy - feeling understood, valued and esteemed
how does sexal activity bring a relationship closer?
sexual activity marks the relationship as different from other friendships
sexual exclusivity is a common social marker of a “relationship”
How are rewards and costs of relationship evaluated?
against a comparison level (thibaut & Kelly 1959)
what is a comparison level?
one’s personal cost/reward ratio for a relationship.
If relationship is higher comparison level: maintain or develop further
If relationship has a lower comparison level: look for exit or alternatives
where to comparison levels come from?
past experience: levels when past relationships good or bad
social comparison: regard/costs observed in relationships for others
perceived alternatives: whether being with someone else will have a higher reward/cost ratio
how are close relationships defined?
by subjective importance of relationship
mutual interdependence of partners
what is behavioural interdependence?
each person highly influences the other’s decisions, activities, and plants. Much time is spent in joint activities
emotional interdependence
each person’s emotions are strongly affected by the other’s feelings and behaviour
cognitive interdependence
thinking about the self and partner as inextricably linked parts of a whole; high level of knowledge of the partner
what is self-expansion?
the “other” becomes incorporated into “self” (Aron, Aron, Tudor and Nelson, 1991)
what are the aspects of self-expansion?
features of partners becomes part of the self-concept
people find it more difficult to distinguish between their own traits and their partner’s traits in close relationships
what are the three elements of Sternberg’s (1998) “triangular theory of love”?
passion
intimacy
commitment
passion
arousal, sexual attraction
intimay
feelings of closeness and togetherness
commitment
wanting the relationship to continue
the combination of the 3 elements leads to 8 types of love. what are these types of love?
passionate, fatuous, empty, compassionate, liking, romantic, consumate
what is the issue with the triangular theory of love?
there is an ongoing argument about the importance of passionate love in relationships (and institutions such as marriage)
what does falling in lvoe seem to require
being raised in a culture where this is important
what does romantic require
emotional arousal, cultural endorsement and an appropriate ‘love object’ (Hatfield & Walster, 1978)
wht is a large impact on passion or romantic love?
cultures. some cultures these things arent common e.g. arranged marriages
what is the social exchange perspective?
relationships involve exchanging “resources” between partners e.g. goods, services, love, status, money, information
when do relationships develop? (with regard to stability)
if partners are satisfied with the exchanging of resources between eachother
how can relationships be classified by comparing reward/cost ratios of partners?
equitable and inequitable
equaitable
where both ratios are about equal
inequitable
where ratios are diferent
what are the two forms if inequity
over-benefit and underbenefit
what is over benefit associated with (in regards to inequity in a relationship)
with guilt, anger
what is under-benefit associated with (in regards to inequity in a relationship)?
depression, frustration and anger
what is equity related to in a relationship?
satisfaction. absolute reward is the best preductor of happiness
what are the four elements in Rusbult’s commitment model to produce relationship commitment?
- total rewards/costs from the relationship
- potential rewards/costs from alternative relationships
- investments that would be lost if relationship ended
- costs of leaving relationship
what are the challenges against the social exchange perspectiv
some theorists argue exchange models are not appropriate for understanding loving relationships. Motivation for contributions is to care for the other, rather than to recieve rewards
what are exchange theorists’ responses to criticisms?
caring for another can be a reward
downplaying exchange and fairness over-romanticises close relationships, and misses importance aspects
what are the four characteristics of a reltionship that are likely to end?
(Levinger, 1980)
- a new relationship seems the only way in which serious problems can be solved/needs can be met
- alternative partners are available
- there is a general expectation that the relationship will fail (when, not if)
- there is low commitment to continuing the relationship
with regard to the characteristics of a relationship that are likely to end, what are other factors that are also included
- Typically predicted by multiple factors, rather than an extreme position on a single factor
- These factors only have to be present for one person
when do relationships usually break down?
due to dissatisfaction and frustration. Breakdowns from loss of love are less common
what are associated with the most positive resolution when a realtionship breaks up?
feeings of control and understanding hwy the breakup occurred.
who usually copes better with the break up?
the breaker
what are involved in Duck’s model of relaitonship dissolution?
- Intrapsychic phase
- Dyadic phase
- Social phase
- Grave-dressing phase
Intrapsychic phase
- think about partner’s faults and inadequacies
* think about options, such as other potential partners
dyadic phase
• raise/discuss/argue about dissatisfaction with partner
social phase
- involving others, eg. friends, counsellor
* search for support and assistance
grave-dressing phase
- self-justifying strategies
* bolstering own view of break-up
why does stress follow relationship bread downs?
due to:
o reduced social support
o renegotiation of pragmatic arrangements
• eg. childcare, living arrangements, finances, telling others, work
o redefinition of self (extracting the “other”)
o changed social contacts, loss of contact with ex-partner’s social network
what does loneliness refer to?
quality, rather than quantity of relationships
what is loneliness a result of?
unmet needs for affection, understanding, recognition and acceptance. especially for those who think it can only be overcome by another relationship rather than friendship
what are the two types of attributions of loneliness that cause loneliness?
better coping
worst coping
who are people who are better at coping?
people who see loneliness as temporary and situationally bound
who are people who are worse at coping?
people who see loneliness arising from their stable personal qualities
what did Lucas (2005) discover after a 14 year longitudinal study about life satisfaction before and after divorce?
8 years before divorce it was slightly higher than 6 years after the divorce. The lowest life satisfaction is just before the divorce
how do people from different cultures have different expectations/experiences of relationships and love?
ethnic cultures - e.g. indiidualistic collectivistic
sexuality cultures - heterosexual, homosexual, sex-workers
followers of different religions - sex before marriage is a sin
what is an example of non-monagamous close relationships?
“open” relationships
