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3B-inheritance Flashcards

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1
Q

where is DNA found?

A

in the chromosones in the nucleus

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2
Q

what do genes do?

A

they determine features by instructing cells to produce particular proteins which then lead to the development of the feature. AKA the genes are a section of DNA that codes for a particular protein

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3
Q

what is a molecule of DNA made up of?

A

made of two strands of molecules called nucleotides.
each nucleotide contains a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing group called a base

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4
Q

what does a nucleotide contain?

A

each nucleotide contains a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing group called a base.
there are 4 types of bases:
adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), guanine (G)

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5
Q

what are the 4 types of bases?

A

there are 4 types of bases:
adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), guanine (G)

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6
Q

what is important to remember about the bases?

A

in the nucleotides, adenine is always opposite to thymine (on separate nucleotides) and cytosine is opposite to guanine. THEY ARE COMPLIMENTARY BASES meaning they always link with each other (this is the base-pairing rule). a consequence of this is that the amounts of A and T are equal as well as C and G

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7
Q

what is the genome?

A

the entire DNA of an organisms

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8
Q

what is a gene?

A

genes are a section of DNA that codes for a particular protein

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9
Q

what does the phosphate group do?

A

hold together the nucleotides in each strand together

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10
Q

what do the hydrogen bonds do?

A

hold the pairs of bases together

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11
Q

what shape is DNA?

A

a molecule made up of two strands coiled together to form a double helix (linked together by a series of paired bases)

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12
Q

can DNA replicate itself?

A

yes, it is the only chemical that can. because of this, it is able to pass genetic information form one generation to the next as ‘genetic code’

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13
Q

what is DNA?

A

the molecule that stores genetic information in the form of a code. it is a polymer, a long-chain molecule. it is made up of repeating units called nucleotides

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14
Q

what is a gene?

A

a short length of DNA that codes for a single protein

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15
Q

what is a chromosome?

A

a single DNA molecule coded around proteins called histones, allow DNA to be packed and protected

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16
Q

how do nucleotides code for proteins?

A

they determine the order of amino acids as the sequence of bases in DNA code code for the sequence of amino acids in proteins

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17
Q

what are alleles?

A

all individuals of the same species have the same genes at the same locations on their chromosomes. However, there are many different forms of these genes. these are called alleles.

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18
Q

what shape is RNA

A

single stranded, not a helix

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19
Q

what are the bases in RNA

A

adenine, cytosine, guanine, URASIL

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20
Q

what type of sugar is in DNA, RNA?

A

DNA-deoxyribose
RNA-ribose

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21
Q

where is RNA found?

A

in the nucleus, cytoplasm

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22
Q

in how many forms does DNA and RNA have?

A

DNA - 1 form
RNA - 3 forms

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23
Q

what is transcription? describe it step by step

A
  1. DNA strands are connected by hydrogen bonds. They are separated and so the bases are exposed of the TEMPLATE STRAND
  2. RNA nucleotides roam freely in the nucleus. they form complementary pairs with the DNA when they are exposed (n.b., uracil binds to adenine)
  3. the RNA nucleotides join together to form an mRNA chain
  4. when this is completed, the mRNA detaches and leaves the nucleus through the nuclear pore
  5. the 2 DNA strands re-join
  6. RNA polymerase catalyses the reaction ( by seperating the DNA strands)
  7. the mRNA goes to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm
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24
Q

what is transcription? describe it step by step

A
  1. DNA strands are connected by hydrogen bonds. They are separated and so the bases are exposed of the TEMPLATE STRAND
  2. RNA nucleotides roam freely in the nucleus. they form complementary pairs with the DNA when they are exposed (n.b., uracil binds to adenine)
  3. the RNA nucleotides join together to form an mRNA chain
  4. when this is completed, the mRNA detaches and leaves the nucleus through the nuclear pore
  5. the 2 DNA strands re-join
  6. RNA polymerase catalyses the reaction ( by seperating the DNA strands)
  7. the mRNA goes to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm
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25
Q

what is special about genetic code?

A

in DNA there are 4 different types of bases but there are 20 different amino acids. therefore, the mRNA chain can be subdivided into a series of triples, or CODONS.
each CODON codes for a specific amino acid

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26
Q

what is universal code?

A

the same base code for the same thing in all organisms

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27
Q

what is translation? describe the process step by step.

A
  1. mRNA enters the ribosome
  2. ribosomes translate the mRNA into an amino acid chain, or protein. this requires the mRNA chain, the ribosome, and tRNA molecules (the tRNA reads code (there’s 64 types of tRNAs)
  3. each tRNA molecule has an amino acid attached to an anticodon, which is complementary to a specific mRNA codon
  4. the mRNA attaches to the ribosome and, here, each mRNA codon is matched with a complementary anticodon on a tRNA molecule; this begins with the start codon
  5. the ribosome then catalyses a reaction (the formation of a peptide bond) between the two amino acids attached to two adjacent tRNA molecules, gradually forming a chain of amino acids
  6. this chain is then folded to form a functional protein
  7. the process continues until a stop codon is reached
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28
Q

what is translation? describe the process step by step.

A
  1. mRNA enters the ribosome
  2. ribosomes translate the mRNA into an amino acid chain, or protein. this requires the mRNA chain, the ribosome, and tRNA molecules (the tRNA reads code (there’s 64 types of tRNAs)
  3. each tRNA molecule has an amino acid attached to an anticodon, which is complementary to a specific mRNA codon
  4. the mRNA attaches to the ribosome and, here, each mRNA codon is matched with a complementary anticodon on a tRNA molecule; this begins with the start codon
  5. the ribosome then catalyses a reaction (the formation of a peptide bond) between the two amino acids attached to two adjacent tRNA molecules, gradually forming a chain of amino acids
  6. this chain is then folded to form a functional protein
  7. the process continues until a stop codon is reached
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29
Q

what is DNA replication?

A

the polynucleotide strands of DNA separate
each strand then acts as a template for the new strand of DNA
the DNA polymerase then assembles nucleotides into two new strands according to the base-pairing rule
the two identical DNA molecules are formed- each contains a strand from the parent DNA and a new complementary strand

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30
Q

what does RNA have instead of thymine?

A

uracil

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31
Q

what are the stages of protein synthesis?

A

transcription, translation including mRNA, ribosomes, tRNA, codons, anti codons

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32
Q

what does mRNA do?

A

forms a copy of the DNA code

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33
Q

what does tRNA do?

A

carries amino acids to the ribosomes to make protein

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34
Q

what is DNA made of?

A

nucleotides- the order codes for proteins determining the order of amino acids

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35
Q

what is a genome?

A

all the DNA in a person

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36
Q

name the 4 bases in DNA

A

adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine

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37
Q

what is the molecule of inheritance?

A

deoxyribonucleic acid

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38
Q

what is a gene?

A

a section of the DNA that codes for a specific characteristic

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39
Q

what are the components of nucleotides?

A

phosphate group, a ribose sugar, and a nitrogenous base

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40
Q

what sugar is in DNA?

A

ribose

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41
Q

what sugar is in RNA?

A

ribose

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42
Q

what bases are in RNA?

A

adenine, cytosine, guanine, uracil

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43
Q

what shape is RNA?

A

not a helix

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44
Q

what is a universal code?

A

the same base code for the same thing in all organisms

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45
Q

draw a strand of DNA (part of double helix) and label each thing there

A

there should be Hydrogen bonds, sugar (pentagon), ACTG, phosphate (circles)

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46
Q

what is the attraction between the bases?

A

hydrogen bonds

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47
Q

what are the pairs of bases called?

A

complimentary base pairs

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48
Q

which base pair is easier to separate?

A

it’s easier to searate the T-A bond because there’s only 2 hydrogen bonds compared to 3 in G-C

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49
Q

quickly describe what happens from the DNA to the amino acid (arrows)

A

the DNA for coding is coded onto -> DNA template (opposite of DNA coding). -> mRNA (complimentary to the template and also has uracil, same as original DNA)-> tRNA (complimentary to mRNA, same as DNA template)-> amino acids formed from codons (MUST BE COMPLIMENTARY)

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50
Q

what are homologous chromosomes?

A

chromosomes which are copied of each other. They are equivalent but have different alleles. Therefore, they carry the genes for coding the same proteins in the same sequence and are similar length

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51
Q

what is a homologous pair?

A

most humans have 2 copies of each chromosome- a homologous pair
one is paternal, on maternal

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52
Q

what is a mutation?

A

a random change in the DNA of an organism

53
Q

what happens if there is a mutation in the DNA?

A

this causes a change in the DNA base -> change in mRNA codon -> change in amino acid coded for -> change in protein shape -> change in protein function -> potentially causes a change in the phenotype?

54
Q

what is a phenotypes?

A

a characteristic of a person

55
Q

what are the types of mutations are there?

A

insertion, deletion, substitution, inversion

56
Q

what is a karyotype

A

images of a chromosomes in a cell - used to identify genetic disorders such as down’s syndrome

57
Q

what is a nucleotide?

A

Building blocks of DNA and RNA (sugar + phosphate + base)

58
Q

what is a chromosome?

A

Thread-like structures composed of DNA condensed around proteins

59
Q

what is an autosome?

A

Chromosomes in a cell, excluding the sex chromosomes

60
Q

what does dominant mean?

A

Characteristic expressed in both homozygous and heterozygous condition
e.g., xy makes male and xx is female
idk

61
Q

what is DNA

A

A nucleic acid that determines the characteristics of most living things

62
Q

what is translation?

A

Process where DNA codes for production of RNA

63
Q

what does heterozygous mean

A

Two different alleles e.g. Aa (hetero-2 diff things)

64
Q

what is a sex chromosome

A

Chromosomes which determine sex

65
Q

what is a phenotype

A

Observable characteristics of an organism

66
Q

what is transcription?

A

Process where RNA acts as code for production of a polypeptide (folds to make protein)

67
Q

what is an allele?

A

Different forms of the same gene

68
Q

what is a gene?

A

section of DNA that codes for a particular polypeptide

69
Q

what is homozygous?

A

Two copies of the same allele e.g. aa (homo-the same)

70
Q

what does recessive mean?

A

Characteristic only expressed in the homozygous condition

71
Q

what does diploid mean?

A

A cell that contains two sets of chromosomes

72
Q

what does haploid mean?

A

A cell that only contains one set of chromosomes

73
Q

what does codominant mean?

A

Both alleles are expressed in the heterozygous condition

74
Q

what is a carrier

A

An individual who carries the allele for a disease/trait but does not express that characteristic

75
Q

what is a genotype?

A

combination of alleles you have (that is therefore expressed by phenotype?)

76
Q

what is monohybrid inheritance? why is it unique?

A

it is where an individual inherits a characteristic which is determined by a gene with two alleles e.g., eye colour is controlled by a single gene with 2 alleles (BB,Bb,bb)
its unique because most genes are not like this

77
Q

how do you find ratio of phenotypes?

A

using a punnett square (farmer’s field)

78
Q

give me an example of what you would write in a punnett square for eye colour if the father was homozygous recessive and the mother was homozygous dominant

A

mum:
phenotype- brown
genotype- BB
dad:
phenotype- blue
genotype- bb
and then draw out the gametes. the children will have brown eyes 75% but will be recessive or not (Bb,BB)

79
Q

what does a domnant allele do?

A

hide the effect of the recessive allele

80
Q

what is codominant? how is it presented?

A

2 alleles contributing to a phenotype e.g., red and white coat colour for cows
neither is dominant over the other therefore you can end up with a ‘roan cow’ ( a mix of both)

this is presented usign a letter e.g,. C and the other bit e.g., colour (Red/White) as a letter, so R or W in superscript (like when you have 10^-2 or something like that)

81
Q

what are some examples of codominance?

A

coat colour (of cows), flower colour (of snapdragons)

82
Q

what are the blood types? which is the universal donor/reciever?

A

A, AB, B, O
donor- Blood type O
receiver- AB
idk why though! lets hope it won’t be on the exam!!

83
Q

what is a pedigree diagram? what does it help you do? what shape are males and females?

A

pedigree diagrams shows inheritance of a characteristic in a family. It helps identify whether a disease is recessive or dominant by looking at the offspring
males are squares
females are circles

84
Q

why is a carrier special?

A

a carrier doesn’t suffer from the disease itself but it can pass onto offspring. YOU CAN ONLY HAVE A CARRIER IN A RECESSIVE DISEASE e.g., hemophilia and cystic fibrosis

85
Q

here is an example: both parents have a disease but only one child has the disease. what can you gather about the disease from this information? a pedigree diagram might help with this.

A

the disease must be dominant. This is because if it was recessive, both parents would need to have the recessive gene and be homozygous so ALL the children would have the disease. Therefore both parents are heterozygous - Rr so some offspring weren’t affected

86
Q

here is an example: neither parents have the disease but only one child has the disease. what can you gather about the disease from this information? a pedigree diagram might help with this.

A

here the disease must be recessive. this is because if it was dominant, at least parent would, have to have the disease. In this case, the parents are heterozygous and carriers - Rr and Rr. they must be Rr aswell as some children don’t have the disease so they are carriers or not affected at all

87
Q

what is one way you can tell a disease is recessive?

A

if both parents arent affected but a child is

88
Q

what is variation?

A

differences in characteristics e.g., between species or in a species

89
Q

what are some sources of variation?

A

meiosis- you receive different sets of chromosomes and alleles (production of unique gametes in meiosis)
random fertilisation - random combo of alleles from 2 parents
polygenic inheritance - several genes control features e.e.g, hair colour, height
mutation
environemnt

90
Q

what types of variation are from inheritance?

A

eye colour, attached earlobes, hair colour, sex, genetic diseases, fingerprint (mendilium), blood group

91
Q

what types of variation are from environment?

A

hair length, ability to speak english

92
Q

what types of variation are from both inheritance and environment?

A

strength, speed, fitness, height, intelligence, weight, stamina, skin colour, personality

93
Q

what is the process of evolution?

A

in order for it to take place, there must be variation between the species. This comes from a mutation e.g., neck variation in giraffes
2. something exerts a selective pressure on the population e.g., competition for a limited amount of food (there is no selective pressure if there are plenty of resources)
3. some individuals happen to have characteristics that make them more suited to the pressure and so they are more likely to survive and reproduce e.g., giraffes with longer necks eat more food if they have longer necks
4. these individuals reproduce and pass on their favorable characteristics to the next generation
5. the process continues and overtime these characteristics become emphasised
6. overtime the frequency of the favorable alleles increases, and the frequency of unfavorable alleles decreases

94
Q

what is the process of evolution?

A

in order for it to take place, there must be variation between the species. This comes from a mutation e.g., neck variation in giraffes
2. something exerts a selective pressure on the population e.g., competition for a limited amount of food (there is no selective pressure if there are plenty of resources)
3. some individuals happen to have characteristics that make them more suited to the pressure and so they are more likely to survive and reproduce e.g., giraffes with longer necks eat more food if they have longer necks
4. these individuals reproduce and pass on their favorable characteristics to the next generation
5. the process continues and overtime these characteristics become emphasised
6. overtime the frequency of the favorable alleles increases, and the frequency of unfavorable alleles decreases

95
Q

what were darwins observations and evidence?

A
  1. organisms produce more offspring than needed
  2. population size stays the same nevertheless
  3. there was variation
    evidence- galapagos finches, fossil record, peppered moths, homologous bones in mammals
96
Q

what is convergent/divergent evolution?

A

convergent - same selective pressure
divergent-same ancestor

97
Q

what is an antibiotic

A

chemical that kills bacteria

98
Q

what can antibiotics do to bacteria and not do to humans?

A

antibiotics can damage cell walls or affect processes in bacteria e.g., DNA replication, and protein synthesis
THEY DON’T AFFECT HUMAN CELLS

99
Q

what is antibiotic resistance?

A

when a bacteria can’t be killed by a certain antibiotic e.g., MRSA

100
Q

why shouldn’t antibiotics be given if you have a viral infection

A

because of issues with resistance

101
Q

how does bacteria aquire resistance?

A
  1. Random mutation during cell division occurs which creates variation e.g., building resistance to antibiotics
  2. the repeated use of antibiotics is a selective pressure on the bacteria as it is affecting their ability to survive
  3. bacteria with resistance have a selective advantage as they are elected for and are less likely to die, therefore more likely to reproduce, passing on their favourable alleles
  4. this happens faster as bacteria have a shorter lifespan than other organisms and reproduce asexually
    - continued natural selection produces resistance over generations and eventually the % of resistant types in population increases
102
Q

genome v gene?

A

a genome is the entire DNA of an organism
gene is a section of a molecule of DNA that codes for a specific protein

103
Q

what does the nucleus contain?

A

contains chromosomes on which genes are located

104
Q

describe the shape of a DNA molecule

A

2 strands coiled to form a helix. the strands are linked by a series of paired bases : AT and CG

105
Q

descirbe the structure of RNA

A

single stranded

106
Q

is mutation common or rare? can it be inherited?

A

it is a rare random change in genetic material that can be inherited

107
Q

what do most genetic mutations do?

A

ususallyfor the most part they have no effect on the phenotype. some might have a small effect but rarely do they have a significant effect

108
Q

what can increase the chance of a mutation?

A

exposure to ionising radiation, for example, gamma rays, x rays, uv rayscan increase incidence of mutations. chemical mutagens like chemicals in tobacco increases the incidence of mutations

109
Q

what is a diploid? what is a haploid? how many of x does each have?

A

a diploid has 46 chromosomes and a haploid is a cell with 23 chromosomes

110
Q

how do genes exist?

A

in alternate forms called alleles which give rise to differences in inherited characteristics

111
Q

what is phenotypic features a result from

A

from polygenic inheritence (rather than single genes)

112
Q

what is polygenic inheritance?

A

In biology, polygenic inheritance is the passing down of a trait that is controlled by multiple genes

113
Q

what is monohybrid inheritance?

A

Monohybrid inheritance is the inheritance of characteristics controlled by a single gene (mono = one)
This can be determined using a genetic diagram known as a Punnett square

114
Q

What is the sex of a person determined by?

A

one pair of chromosome which is either XX or XY - Y is dominant

115
Q

draw out the genetic offspring diagram to find out what sex of child is?

A

50% f 50% m

116
Q

what is a gene?

A

a section of molecule of DNA that codes for a specific protein

117
Q

where does translation take place?

A

the ribosome

118
Q

what forms on the template strand?

A

a framework upon which a molecule of mRNA is formed

119
Q

what is mRNA made up of?

A

RNA nucleuotides

120
Q

where does the mRNA go? from where?

A

it goes to the cytoplasm from the nucleus through the pores in the nuclear membrance

121
Q

what is translation - definition

A

converting the code in the mRNA into a protein

122
Q

what does the mRNA molecule do in the ribosome?

A

it attaches to a ribosome.

123
Q

what is the tRNA in comparison to mRNA

A

the tRNA has the anticodons to the mRNA

124
Q

what is attatched to the tRNA on both sides?

A

on one side the anticodon, on the other sire- the amino acid

125
Q

what is inversion?

A

when the sequence of the bases in a triplet is reversed

126
Q

what is substitution?

A

a different nucleotide is (e.g., guanine I think) is used, meaning it may cause a different amino acid

127
Q

what is a histone?

A

a histone is Dna coiled around protiens

128
Q

what does each chromosome contain?

A

one double stranded DNA molecule. differnet chromosomes will contain different DNA molecules which will contain different genes

129
Q
A

Biology MA (16 decks)

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