3-7 Flashcards
• A Swiss biologist, philosopher, and psychologist
• Saw that human cognition (intelligence) as adaptive
• Believed that mental structures of children are qualitatively different from adults
• Viewed that children are as an active constructor of knowledge
Jean Piaget
• The basic units of the intellect
• Cognitive structures by which we make sense out of experiences
• Organizes out interactions with environment
• Interpret the external world
Mental Schemas or Schemas
Processes to develop the Schemas
Assimilation
Accommodation
Equilibrium or cognitive balance
• The process of interpreting new information and experiences according to one’s existing schemes
• The person interprets reality in a way that fits his/her mental schemes
Assimilation
• The process of modifying or differentiating existing schemes to better fit the new stimulus or information
• Our mental schemes become more complex and reflect the external world more accurately, thereby allowing us to adapt more effectively
Accommodation
• Attained when schemes that emerge are in accordance with the demands and information from the external world
Equilibrium or cognitive balance
Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational Stage
Concrete Operational Stage
Formal Operational Stage
• From birth to 2 years old
• Children explore and gain knowledge of the world primarily through their senses and motor activities
• Babies do not have the capacity to mentally represent information and experiences
• All they know is based on direct manipulation and exploration of the environment
Sensorimotor Stage
An understanding that they are separate
from the external world
Decentration
• Realizing that they can purposively act on objects
Intentionality
• The understanding that objects and other stimuli continue to exist even outside of the infants perception
Object permanence
2 to 7 seven years old
Preoperational Stage
Development of two very important mental processes arise:
- Symbolic Thinking
- Representational Thinking
• Understanding that one thing can arbitrarily stand for something else
• Examples include:
• Playing Pretend
• Drawing
• Imitation
Symbolic Thinking
• A child is liberated from the rigidity of
sensorimotor areas
• Motor actions will have now become “interiorized” by now
• The child can now use mental images rather than mental actions
• However the child’s thinking is still illogical and still cannot perform mental operations
• “Are representations of actions that obey logical rules”
Representational Thinking
Several limitations in the Preoperational Stage
• Centration
• Inability to Conserve
• Egocentrism
• A child’s propensity to focus or attend to one aspect at a time
Centration
• A child’s inability to understand that physical properties of objects remain the same despite changes in the object’s outward appearance
Inability to Conserve
• A child’s inability to consider viewpoints other than his own
• Egocentrism
• 7 to 11 years old
• Child had overcome most of the limitations of the
previous stage
• Thought is now more logical and flexible
Concrete operational stage
In concrete operational stage, child is now capable of the following skills:
Seriating
Transitive Reasoning
Classification
• Child’s ability to order objects according to quantitative dimensions
Seriating
• Basic logical problem solving ability
Transitive Reasoning
Recognizing hierarchical relations between sets and subsets
Classification
•11 years old and beyond
• Reasons logically, starting from premises
• Entertains and tests hypothesis
• Solves problems by systematically considering the multiple sides and possibilities of a given situation
Formal Operational Stage
• “Treat each person as an end, not as a
means.”
• Basis for the notion of universal morality characterized by justice and equality
Immanuel Kant’s Practice Imperative
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Preconventional Morality
Conventional Morality
Postcon
• Primary consideration is the consequence of the act to the self
• Moral Decisions are egocentric
• Behaviors are motivated by self interest
• Avoidance of punishment or;
• Attainment of rewards
Precon
• Define “good and bad” in terms of obedience and disobedience to rules and authority figures
• Disobeying authority warrants punishment
• They will try to avoid punishment at all costs.
Example: A child may decide to eat vegetables because her mother may get angry with her if she does not.
Stage 1: Punishment and obedience orientation
• “I scratch your back, you scratch mine”
• Morally right behavior depends on what satisfies one’s needs and desires
• Child is concerned in meeting someone’s needs, but focused on how it may benefit him/her
Example: A child may eat vegetables knowing that after she eats them, she will be given ice cream as reward.
Stage 2: Reward orientation
• Conforming to social norms and maintaining to social order become central point of reasoning
• Moral reasoning becomes “sociocentric”
• May seek to meet other expectations; if not;
• Seek their approval
Conventional Morality
• Exemplifies approval seeking orientation
• Focuses on meeting interpersonal expectations
• “Good” or “Right” behavior is meeting other’s expectations and pleasing them
• Described as “Care orientation”
Example: The reason why a person smokes is the fact that all of his friends smoke as well.
Stage 3: Good boy / Good girl orientation
• Called justice orientation
• Strong emphasis on law and order, duty and legitimate authority
• Concept of morally “right and wrong” is based on the mandate of the law
Example: One may reason that stealing is wrong because it is against the law.
Stage 4: Social System Orientation
• The individual abides by self-chosen principles
• Moral judgment is no longer based on self centered needs, social approval nor social norms but on;
• Universal principles of justice, equality and human dignity
Postconventional Morality
• Relies on principles such as individual rights, equality, human dignity, contractual agreement, and mutual obligation
• Believes that the law must uphold these values
• If found to be unjust, one should work to change the law in a manner that reflects rational deliberation and social consensus
Example: An Evaluation of “The Philippine Constitution”
Stage 5: Morality of social contract and democracy
• Individuals of this stage would be willing to break social rules and the law, and accept the consequences
• In the event that such laws went against the highest principles of human life such as equality and dignity.
• This moral reasoning go beyond social order and social contract
• Stage 6: Morality of individual principles of conscience
-A basis for personality and social development
Psychosexual Development
• Sexual and aggressive drives are the dominant driving forces of human personality and behavior
• Our personalities are shaped according to how we are able to solve conflicts between our biological, sexual drives, and expectations of society
Sigmund Freud’s Theory on Personality
Freud saw the self, its mental processes, and one’s behavior as the results of the interaction between the:
Id
Ego
Superego
• Pleasure principle • Unconscious
• Seeks pleasure
• Avoids pain
Id-
• Reality Principle • Rational
• Conscious
Ego –
• Moral Consideration
• Conscience
Super Ego –
• Sexual or libidinal energies focus on different parts of our bodies
• The primary goal of the person is to gratify the center of pleasure
• If balanced is not attained:
• Needs are not gratified or;
• if they are over gratified
Freud’s view on development
• The individual’s energies remain stuck or ___ to the particular need of that stage
• These fixations will let the person continue to attempt to gratify that need
• All these attempts may manifest various forms of psychological problems and maladjustment
fixated
• Mouth is the center of pleasure
• Oral activities does not only mean feeding but extending to exploring the world
• Infants derive pleasure and comfort from sucking, chewing and biting
• Gossiping
• Talking too much
• Overeating
• Smoking
• Alcoholism
• An excessive childish dependence on others
• Oral Stage (12 – 18 months)
(Between 12-18 months and 3 years)
Sexual energies are focused on the ANUS
• Expulsion and retention of bowels relieve tension and are pleasurable
• Toilet training is related to social constraints and expectations
• The demand to control bowel movements conflicts with the instinctual pleasure
• If training is harsh and demanding, or began too early or too late problems will occur
Fixations in the anal stage
• Controlling
• Stingy
• Stubborn
• Excessively concerned with cleanliness • Messy
• Disorganized • Extravagant • Impulsive
• Anal Stage
3-6 yrs old
• Focus is now on the GENITAL AREA
• Boys develop a sexual desire for their mothers
• Including a desire to eliminate their father for their mother’s affection (OEDIPUS COMPLEX)
• Girls experience “penis envy”
• She transfers attention to her father to compensate for the lack of the organ (ELECTRA COMPLEX)
Unresolved conflict with same sex parent will result in: • Extreme fear
• Aggression
Others include:
• Uncertainty about one’s gender identity
• Problem’s maintaining a stable love relationship • Appearance of deviant sexual behavior
Phallic
6-11 yrs old
• A temporary repression of the libido
• Sexual impulses are dormant
• Children channel their energies toward developing social, intellectual and moral skills instead
Latency
(11 years to adulthood)
• Individual’s sexual drive returns with a vengeance and is once again
focused on the genital areas
• The object for sexual desire is the person of the opposite sex
• Needs are gratified through mature and genital love relationships
• Genital Stage
• A neo-Freudian
• Adheres to some of Freud’s ideas, but
focuses more on social influences. • Focus on Crisis Resolution
• At each stage a crisis must be resolved
• If the crisis is not resolved, the individual may lack the positive characteristic in the stage.
• Stages reflect the motivation of the individual
Erik Erikson
Erikson’s Life-Span Development Theory
- Trust vs. Mistrust
- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
- Initiative vs. Guilt
- Industry vs. Inferiority
- Identity vs. Identity Confusion
- Intimacy vs. Isolation
- Generativity vs. Stagnation
- Integrity vs. Despair
• Birth – 1yr.
• Needs being met
• Basic trust develops when needs are met (Attachment)
• Loving relationship is formed with caregiver
• Important event: Feeding
• Basic Virtue: Hope
TRUST vs. MISTRUST
• 1 – 2 years
Learning to do things for oneself
Development of physical activities (ex. walking)
Important event: toilet training
Independence fostered
by support and encouragement
Basic Virtue: Will
AUTONOMY vs. SHAME AND DOUBT
• 3 – 5 years
• Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks
• One becomes more independent
• Developed by exploring and accepting challenges
• Basic Virtue: Purpose
INITIATIVE vs. GUILT
• 6 years – puberty
• Child completes tasks themselves
• Learning on your own
• Important Event: school
• Mastery comes from success and recognition
• Basic Virtue: Competency
COMPETENCE/ INDUSTRY vs. INFERIORITY
• Teens – early 20s
• Teens refine sense of self
• Test new roles and incorporate them into an identity
• Important events: forming relationships with friends
• Exploration of different paths to attain a healthy identity
• Basic Virtue: Fidelity
IDENTITY vs. ROLE CONFUSION
• 20s – 40s
• Young adults develop intimate
relationships
• Gaining the capacity for intimate love
• Important event: forming love and/or strong relationships
• Basic Virtue: Love
INTIMACY vs. ISOLATION
• 40s – 60s
Middle-aged discover a sense of contribution to this world
Family and work oftentimes satisfy this desire Supporting and satisfying future generation Important event: Parenting
Basic Virtue: Care
GENERATIVITY vs. STAGNATION
⦿ 60s +
◼ Reflection on entire life
◼ Did I contribute to this world? ◼ Sense of fulfillment
◼ Basic Virtue: Wisdom
INTEGRITY vs. DESPAIR
• is what basically comes to your mind when you are asked about who you are.
- Self, identity, and self-concept are not fixed in one timeframe.
Self-concept
captured this idea in his concept of self-schema or our organized system or collection of knowledge about who we are.
Carl Rogers
is composed of personal characteristics, social roles, and responsibilities, as well as affiliations that define who one is.
Identity
_ and _identified two types of self that we can be aware of:
1) The private self
2) the public self
Carver and Scheier
_ or your internal standards and private thoughts and feelings; and
The private self
____ or your public image commonly geared toward having a good presentation of yourself to others.
the public self
- Self-awareness also presents us with at least three other self-schema:
• The “actual” self is who you are at the moment
• The “ideal” self is who you like to be
• The “ought” self is who you think you should be
Higgin’s Self Discrepancy Theory
• The “___” self is who you are at the moment
“actual”
• The “____” self is who you like to be
Ideal
• The “___” self is who you think you should be
ought
• The ___ is the more common type of comparing ourselves with others, by comparing ourselves with those who are worse off than us.
downward social comparison
• The ____ which is comparing ourselves with those who are better off than us.
upward social comparison
