3:11 Society in the 1970s - Content Flashcards
The 1970s saw the high point of…
second wave feminism
The feminist movement had been developing across the world as seen by…
the inauguration of International Women’s Day by the UN
Following the initial Women’s Liberation meeting in 1970…
Women’s Liberation groups sprang up all over the country aiming to give support to women
One example of protest by Women’s Liberation organisations is…
the 1970 Miss World Contest disrupted - they felt it objectified women. They heckled the host and threw smoke bombs onto the stage.
Women’s Liberation also organised demonstrations in…
London and Liverpool in 1971, demanding equal pay for women and free 24-hour nurseries
However, feminism was split between different ideologies:
- Radical feminists (or separatists) who believed that women were oppressed by the patriarchal society and campaigned particularly on issues such as reproductive rights. They wanted women to ‘unshackle’ themselves from the patriarchy and wanted women to become a revolutionary force.
- Liberal (or socialist) feminists sought the legal equality of men and women and campaigned on issues that would enable women to achieve financial independence. They wanted to end de jure discrimination against women and expand laws to protect women.
Although the contraceptive pill had been made available in the 1960s…
it became much more widely used after becoming available through the NHS in 1971
The availability of the pill on the NHS was most impactful for…
teenagers and working class women
Attempts were made to tackle violence against women, such as the first rape crisis centre opening in…
London in 1976
The 1976 Domestic Violence Act made it possible for…
women to take out court orders restraining violent partners
In 1977…
‘Reclaim the Night’ marches were held in cities across Britain in response to the murders of the Yorkshire Ripper - who murdered 13 women
What did the Sex Discrimination Act of 1975 do?
> It ended discrimination against men or women on the basis of their gender or marital status.
> Concerned employment, training, education, harassment and provision of goods and services
The Sex Discrimination Act also set up…
the Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC)
> This would oversee both the Sex Discrimination Act and the Equal Pay Act
> It could bring court proceedings against any party it judged not to be compliant with these Acts
However, what is the evidence that the EOC was unsuccessful in achieving its aims?
> The EOC only launched nine investigations between 1976 and 1983
Only 10% of sex discrimination claims in the workplace were successful as it was too difficult to prove
However, women’s economic position…
did indeed start to improve during the 1970s
From 1971, women were able to…
take out a mortgage without a male guarantor
The Equal Pay Act which had been passed in 1970…
came into force in 1975
> It prohibited less favourable treatment between men and women in terms of pay and conditions of employment
> However, for an employee to claim under this Act they had to be able to prove that they had done the same amount of work, or work of equal value or rated the same as another employee.
> It was often difficult to prove discrimination.
Why did the Equal Pay Act not come into force until 1975?
> It gave companies five years to prepare to pay women equally
Which reforms did Barbara Castle make in 1975?
> The Social Security Pensions Act
The Employment Protection Act
What was the impact of the Social Security Pensions Act on women?
The pension scheme became more generous to women whose contributions had been limited by caring responsibilities
What was the impact of the Employment Protection Act on women?
It introduced paid maternity leave and outlawed dismissal on the grounds of pregnancy.
However…
women continued to experience inequalities throughout the 1970s
Trade unions tended to be…
dominated by men
There remained suspicions within trade unions that…
women in the workplace would suppress wages for men
It was not until 1979 that…
the TUC published a charter, ‘Equality for Women within Trade Union’.
The Equal Pay Act did not solve all of the concerns that women were not paid equally…
employers could get around the Act by making tasks slightly different and therefore not comparable
However, women’s wages did increase in the 1970s:
Women’s wages were 59% of men’s wages in 1970, and this increased to 70% by 1977
In 1971, Chiswick women’s refuge opened…
a refuge for victims of domestic violence
Although rape crisis centres were becoming more available…
they did not solve the problem that women were experiencing rape
What impact did the progress of feminism have on culture?
> In the 1970s, women were grouping themselves into feminist movements
> Feminist magazines were published, such as Spare Rib
In the 1970s, immigration continued to be…
a source of social concern
When did the Conservative government pass the Immigration Act?
1971
What did the Immigration Act of 1971 do?
> It restricted the right of people from the New Commonwealth from coming to Britain; they needed to have a guaranteed job and at least one grandparent born in Britain
> It restricted primary education and introduced the concept of patriality or right of abode
There remained a steady flow of immigrants from…
the Indian subcontinent - India, Pakistan and Bangladesh
Events abroad often caused sudden influxes. Give 2 examples.
> In the early 1970s, the dictator of Uganda persecuted and expelled the Ugandan Asians - 28,000 arrived in Britain.
> In 1974, Bangladesh broke away from Pakistan, which caused a sudden rush of immigration
By 1974 how many New Commonwealth immigrants had come to Britain?
1 million
How many from the West Indies?
325,000
How many from India and Pakistan?
435,000
How many from Africa?
150,000
What was Britain’s population in the 1970s?
Around 55 million
How many of these 55 million were non-white?
1.4 million
Why did most immigrants settle in large cities like London, Birmingham and Manchester?
These areas had cultural and familial networks for most immigrants
What were race relations like in the 1970s?
> Tensions remained high
> Discrimination and de-facto segregated communities were commonplace
> There was a large ‘Us vs. Them’ is both white and immigrant populations
However, political representation…
did not represent this diversity
In the 1974 London Borough Council elections…
only 10 non-white councillors were elected . By 1978 this had gone up to 35 but it still did not reflect the size of the immigrant population
While the Race Relations Act of 1965 had made it illegal to discriminate based on race in employment…
there remained significant differences in unemployment between whites and non-whites
Between 1973-79…
among first generation immigrants, 4% of white men were unemployed whereas it was 8% for black Caribbean men
However, this also may have been due to differences in qualifications:
the intricacies of the British education system and high levels of migration meant that whites often had more qualifications than non-whites
Between first generation immigrants in 1973-79…
41% of white men had no qualifications whereas 70% of Pakistani men had no qualifications
How did the Labour government attempt to tackle racial discrimination?
They passed another Race Relations Act in 1976
What did the 1976 Race Relations Act do?
> Furthered measures to prevent racial discrimination in employment, the provision of goods and services, education and public functions
> Established the Commission for Racial Equality which aimed to ensure that the Act rules were followed
What did the National Front believe in?
They opposed non-white immigration
Where did the National Front become active in the 1970s?
Areas of London where immigrants had settled, such as Brick Lane and Southall
In 1976, how many members did the National Front have?
20,000 members
By 1977, the National Front was being described as…
Britain’s fourth largest political party
What did the increase in popularity of the National Front do for the major parties?
It indicated ongoing concern over immigration, so other parties tried to appeal to this
By the late 1970s, the Conservatives…
announced that they would toughen up immigration policy even further to limit the immigrants coming to Britain
A television interview by Thatcher in the 1978 said…
that a future Conservative government may strictly limit immigration
What was the public reaction to this speech?
> Some complained that her words were designed to appeal to racists
> Thatcher said that she received hundreds of letters in support
> The Conservatives opened up an 11-point lead in the opinion polls following it
What was one of the National Front’s main activities?
They held marches and demonstrations in areas with high levels of immigration. They were thought to be provocative and were often violent.
According to the Trades Council of East London, how many incidents by the NF were there 1976-78?
Over 100 incidents including 2 murders
Robberies of Asians and Afro-Caribeans…
rose by a third
Some skinheads were attracted by National Front ideas and…
they were often behind violent attacks on non-whites, what was sometimes called ‘Paki-bashing’
However, other young people fought against racist attitudes:
Rock Against Racism started in 1976 against the rock musician Eric Clapton who showed support for Enoch Powell
What was the Battle of Lewisham?
In 1977, 500 NF members carried out a march, but counter-demonstrations by around 4,000 people led to violent clashes between the two groups.
What was the impact of the Battle of Lewisham?
> 5,000 police officers present and 56 officers injured
214 people arrested
In April 1978 in Trafalgar Square…
there was a huge demonstration and concert against racism which attracted 100,000
There was also distrust of the police’s….
treatment of ethnic minorities
In 1976, there were only…
70 police officers from an ethnic minority background in the Metropolitan police, out of a total workforce of 22,000
Young black people often felt that…
the police were harassing them unnecessarily
In 1976, there was a riot against…
the police allegedly harassing black people, in which over 300 people were injured
Many societies were established to combat racism, such as…
> Anti-Nazi League (ANL)
Rock Against Racism (RAR)
Campaign Against Racism and Fascism (CARF)
There were increased suspicions around police attitudes towards race relations, as shown by…
the death of Blair Peach in 1979 - he was an Anti-Nazi League supporter who was killed when a demonstration was blocked by police
What evidence is there that there was progress in race relations in popular culture?
> Black footballers became increasingly common on the pitch
> Reggae and ska music became increasingly popular
> Local authorities began to follow multiculturalist policies
However what examples of ongoing racism were there in popular culture?
> Football terraces were scenes of overt racism
Comedians still felt able to make racist jokes
What did the Commission for Racial Equality warn in 1980?
Racial prejudice and discrimination were still rife, and the response from the government is so disappointingly inadequate
In the 1970s, youth culture continued to…
cause concerns for older generations
When did the punk movement start?
1975-76
Name 2 British punk bands.
The Sex Pistols, The Clash
> They played loud, fast guitar music where the words were often shouted over the top of the music
What was the punk philosophy like?
> Mostly nihilistic
> Rejected the previous hippy culture
> Their lyrics reflected the social alienation that many young people felt
Describe the image of punks.
It was designed to be shocking:
> Involved ripped t-shirts, bondage gear and spikey hair
Which boutique was extremely influential on the punk image?
‘SEX’ in Chelsea, London
What were punk concerts like?
They were chaotic and there were often violent scuffles
The punk movement created…
a moral panic
What was the impact of the Sex Pistols swearing live on TV?
Newspaper headlines such as ‘The Filth and the Fury’ followed
The Sex Pistols also released…
a controversial single, ‘God save the Queen’, during the Queen’s Silver Jubilee year. It reached number two in the charts but the BBC refused to play it.
Where did Skinheads originate from?
They developed from Mod culture at the end of the 1960s
Describe Skinhead culture.
> Often working class
> Initially influenced by Jamaican music and culture
> Many skinheads were apolitical, but by the end of the 1970s, some were becoming increasingly linked to the National Front and football hooliganism
What was football hooliganism in the 1970s?
> It gradually worsened over the 1970s
> Organised hooligan groups were set up linked to particular football clubs
> Scenes of violence became so common that football hooliganism became known as ‘the English disease’
What is environmentalism?
A political philosophy concerned about the protection of the planet, so covering topics such as industrial pollution, protection of wildlife and the dangers of radiation and nuclear waste
What had a big impact on people’s views of the planet?
Pictures taken of the earth from space, as they highlighted the earth’s fragility
Which new word entered the vocabulary in the 1970s?
‘ecology’ - defining the health of the natural environment
Environmentalist ideas also drew on…
the counterculture of the 1970s that had rejected consumerism and commercialisation. It also drew on emerging fears that there was a downside to the recent scientific progress
1970 was announced to be…
the year of European conservation
In the early 1970s…
environmental concerns began to coalesce into organised campaigns
Which environmental pressure group formed in the US did Britain become involved in?
Friends of the Earth
A new form of anti-nuclear protest campaigned against…
the use of nuclear power to generate electricity because of the long-term dangers in dealing with radioactive nuclear waste and the potential for accidents
Between 1957 and 1979…
there had been 5 incidents at the nuclear power station Sellafield
Which issue split the environmental movement?
The issue of direct action
What was Greenpeace and when was it formed in the UK?
Originally campaigning against whaling, Greenpeace UK was formed in 1971
From 1973, animal rights protestors…
carried out violent attacks on pharmaceutical laboratories
What was the Animal Liberation Front?
A group formed in 1976, who adopted extreme violence, and send letter bombs to politicians
Alongside environmental pressure groups, there was…
a general increase in interest in the natural environment and the need for conservation
Television programmes did a lot to raise awareness, such as…
David Attenborough’s Life on Earth series in 1979
Environmental concerns were also reflected in popular culture. Give an example.
The book Watership Down, published in 1972
What was Teddy Goldsmith’s ‘A Blueprint for Survival’ from 1972 about?
It advocated a return to self-sufficiency an a de-industrialised society
It also formed the political platform of…
The People’s Party, set up in 1973
The People’s Party put up…
5 candidates in February 1974, including Goldsmith
In 1975, it…
changed its name to the Ecology Party and put up 53 candidates in the 1979 general election.
By the end of the 1970s, environmentalism…
had carved a permanent place on the political scene
Content summary:
> The feminist movement
Women’s Liberation
The pill
Rape crisis centres and domestic abuse refuges
Legislation for female equality and their efficacy
Women’s economic situation
Feminist culture
Immigration in the 70s
Race Relations Act 1976
The National Front
The Punk movement
Skinheads
Environmentalism
