(!) 2:7 Social and cultural change - Content Flashcards
What attitude about women from the 1950s continued into the 1960s?
That women had the duty of being a good wife and mother, keeping a clean home and feeding her children and husband.
The growth of feminism in Britain led to more women…
going into higher education, particularly middle class women
Despite more women attending university, few women…
reached managerial posts
In 1970, what % of students in higher education were female?
28%
In 1970, what % of people in managerial posts were female?
5%
What was education like for most working-class girls?
Their education still had much focus on the domestic sphere and girls frequently left school at the minimum age, marrying young.
Although there were plenty of jobs available to women, they were predominantly…
in the clerical and service sector with no prospects for promotion and poor pay
Why were many women put off from being a working mother?
The media often portrayed working mothers as unnatural and selfish
Why was it not possible for many mothers to work?
They had to take care of their children, as childminders were rare and private nurseries could only be afforded by the wealthy
What did the National Health Service (Family Planning) Act of 1967 do?
It allowed local authorities to provide contraceptives and contraceptive advice for the first time
What were 3 trends partly caused by the increased availability of contraception?
> The number of illegitimate births rose (5.8% in 1960, 8.2% in 1970)
> The number of marriages ending in divorce rose
> There became less children up for adoption, as there were less unwanted children being born
When did the contraceptive pill become available on the NHS?
1961
At first, why was the pill mainly prescribed to older women who already had children or didn’t want any more?
The government didn’t want to be seen to be encouraging promiscuity or ‘free love’
From what year were family planning clinics allowed to prescribe the pill to single women?
1974
The widespread availability of the pill allowed both men and women to…
have control over their reproductive health and to choose when they want to have a child
What were the Dagenham protests?
When 187 female workers for Ford’s Dagenham factory went on strike in 1968 after their work was classed as ‘unskilled labour’ and were paid significantly lower than the male factory workers
What did the Dagenham protests help to enforce?
The strike gained widespread attention and was a precursor to the Equal Pay Act of 1970
What did the Equal Pay Act of 1970 do?
It established the principle of equal pay for equal work; making it illegal to have separate pay scales for men and women based on their sex. However, it did not come into force until 1975.
How much progress had the female equality movement made by the end of the 1960s?
Inequalities and discrimination against women still existed and the traditional stereotyping of roles remained strong
What other culture was seen in the permissive society?
The new drug culture
Cocaine and heroin addiction was _ times more prevalent in the first half of the 1960s.
ten
What was more commonplace by the end of the 1960s?
The use of soft drugs
What was the ‘hippy lifestyle’?
A movement with an emphasis on peace, ‘free love’ and ‘flower power’. They often experimented with drugs, particularly LSD, and music.
A new youth culture emerged, who were more inclined to question norms and reject social conventions. What may have caused this? (3 things)
> Increased affluence, living standards
Increased availability of education
Growth of leisure time
Over what types of things did young people clash over with the older generations?
Fashion, musical tastes, moral standards (drugs and sex)
How did young people listen to popular music?
By tuning in to one of the pirate radio stations, or BBC Radio One (from 1967). They could also use new technology, like cheap plastic record players.
New television programmes like Top of the Pops helped spread…
the latest trends in music, dance, jargon, attitude and dress
Name 2 youth subcultures that emerged in the 1960s
Skinheads and hippies
In the late 1960s, youth culture and political activism merged in opposition against…
the Vietnam War
In the summer of 1965, there were teach-ins against the war at what two universities?
Oxford University and London School of Economics
What organisation was set up in 1966 against the war?
The Vietnam Solidarity Campaign
What happened on 17th March 1968?
The first Trafalgar Square protest: a violent anti-Vietnam War demonstration near the American Embassy in Grosvenor Square. Around 10,000 people participated.
What happened on 28th March 1968?
‘The Battle of Grosvenor Square’ - a more violent protest with over 200 people being arrested
What was the final anti-Vietnam War demonstration in October 1968 like?
It was relatively peaceful, and 30,000 people took part
Give 2 other examples of anti-war protests in 1968.
> In Essex, two Conservative MPs were physically attacked
In Manchester, the Labour Secretary of State for Education and Science was shouted down
The influx of New Commonwealth immigrants continued, meaning that…
racial tensions persisted
A survey in North London from 1965 showed that one in five objected to…
working with black people or Asians
The survey showed that half…
would refuse to live next door to a black person
The survey showed that nine out of ten…
disapproved of mixed marriages
What did the Race Relations Act of 1965 do?
It outlawed discrimination in public places ‘on the grounds of colour, race or ethnic or national origins’. However, it excluded shops and private boarding houses.
What was the impact of this law?
It was overall a weak legislation and failed to effectively end racial discrimination
What was the role of the Race Relations Board?
Complaints of racial discrimination were to be referred to this board, which was supposed to conciliate between the two sides
In 1968, alarm over the sudden influx of Kenyan Asian immigrants prompted the government to…
pass a new Commonwealth Immigration Act
What did the 1968 Commonwealth Act do?
It limited the right of return to Britain for non-white Commonwealth citizens
What did Enoch Powell do in April 1968?
He made his notorious ‘rivers of blood’ speech
What was the liberal Establishment’s reaction to Powell’s speech?
He was strongly condemned; Heath sacked him from the shadow cabinet and never spoke to him again.
What was the public’s reaction to Powell’s speech?
They strongly supported him; there were strikes in London and a protest march to Downing Street in response to his sacking.
According to a Gallup poll, what % of the population supported what Powell had said?
75%
What did the Race Relations Act of 1968 do?
It banned racial discrimination in housing, employment, insurance and other services, and gave stronger powers to the Race Relations Board.
What were the loopholes of the 1968 act?
Employers could discriminate against non-whites in the interests of ‘racial balance’ and complaints against the police were excluded from the law
In January 1972, what % of complaints about discriminatory employment did the Race Relations Board actually uphold?
10%
However, what are some examples showing that different racial groups could live together harmoniously?
> The Notting Hill Carnival, which was set up by the West Indian immigrants of the area to try and improve community relations
> Asian corner shops and Chinese takeaways introduced new foods
> Youth culture drew from ethnic communities in music, fashion and street life
When was the Community Relations Commission set up?
1968
What was the Community Relations Commission?
Intended to promote ‘harmonious community relations’
When was the National Committee for Commonwealth Immigrants set up?
1965
How many letters of support did the ‘rivers of blood’ speech receive?
43,000 letters of support
How many letters of hate did the ‘rivers of blood’ speech receive?
800
What could explain the growth of protests in the 1960s?
> Affluence
> Development of new youth and activist subcultures
> The mass media spread ideas
> Ideology groups became more organised
What were the ideologies behind the major protests?
> Female equality
Racial equality
Anti-Vietnam War
Student governance in universities
Why was the year 1968 so significant, not just for Britain, but for the world?
There were lots of protest movements and new activism around the world, lots of new political movements
Who encouraged the development of new TV programming to show more populism, satire and realistic drama?
Hugh Green, Director-General of the BBC
What were the 3 main ways the mass media developed in the 1960s?
> Television
Radio
Print media
Give an example of a new realistic drama on the BBC.
The Wednesday Play
When did BBC2 launch?
1964
What % of people had a television in their home in 1961?
75%
What % of people had a television in their home in 1971?
91%
Teenagers used radios to…
listen to popular music broadcasts
How did magazines and newspapers survive?
They adapted to the public’s interests
When was The Sun newspaper launched?
1964 - it reflected popular culture
Why did people have more time and money for leisure in the 1960s?
They had paid holidays and less people working on Saturdays
Which home leisure activities were reflected in television programmes?
> Gardening
Cooking
Greater access to cars enabled people to…
travel for easily to activities such as shopping
When was Britannia Airways founded?
1964
What % of holidays were package holidays in 1966?
Less than 4% holidays
What % of holidays were package holidays in 1971?
8.4% of holidays
However, package holidays were limited to..
the middle classes
What were some of the great scientific advances of the 1960s?
> Huge projects, such as human space travel in 1961, and the Concorde project
New technologies such as cars, household appliances and transistor radios
When was theatrical censorship abolished?
1968
How did the abolition of theatre censorship come about?
By a private members’ bill, which also had the support of Jenkins
Lord Chamberlain’s Office ruled that…
controversial topics had to be censored from theatre productions
The innovative Royal Court theatre wanted to stage controversial productions, such as…
Edward Bond’s ‘Saved’ in 1965
However, films could still be censored under the…
British Board of Film
Yet, give an example of a film covering controversial topics?
‘Darling’ in 1965
Give an example of a major feminist text published at this time?
‘The Feminine Mystique’ by Friedman in 1963
When was the first Women’s Liberation Conference held?
1970
What did the Women’s Liberation Conference demand?
> Equal pay
Free contraception
Equal educational and employment opportunities
The Divorce Act of 1969 made it easier for…
women to escape unhappy or abusive marriages, women also had more freedom
When was the Matrimonial Property Act?
1970
What did the Matrimonial Property Act do?
It ensured a woman’s role in the home was taken into account in divorce settlements
What was the ‘permissive society’?
The society that went through many liberal changes and enforced liberalising legislation. Its supporters argued that society was better off more open, liberal and tolerant. Its critics argued that it was made worse by a decline in moral standards.
There was a greater visibility of drugs in popular culture, for example:
the Beatles used cannabis and LSD
The use of cocaine and heroin increased by…
ten times
When was the Wootton Report?
1968
What did the Wootton Report recommend?
The decriminalisation of soft drugs
However, the Wootton Report was rejected by?
Callaghan as Home Secretary
The Catholic Church opposed the use of…
the contraceptive pill
Give an example of a television show which broadcast youth music?
Top of the Pops from 1964
Which new youth subcultures had emerged by the end of the 1960s?
Skinheads and hippies
In 1965, there were teach-ins on the Vietnam War at which universities?
Oxford University and the London School of Economics
How many were arrested at the Battle of Grosvenor Square?
200 people
How many members did Whitehouse’s National Viewers’ and Listeners’ Association have?
100,000 members
However, Whitehouse’s moral crusade failed to…
have any impact on the controversial programmes shown
Callaghan called for a…
‘halt to the rising tide of permissiveness’
However, there is evidence that liberal permissiveness actually didn’t influence attitudes and behaviour massively:
surveys by Michael Schofield on the sexual behaviour of young people found that most young people were either virgins on marriage or married their first and only sexual partner.
Youth culture in London was also defined by….
fashion
Traditional clothing rules were abandoned:
women wore trousers, and men wore brightly coloured fabrics
The continued influx of Commonwealth immigrants in the 1960s meant that…
social tensions did not cease
A survey in North London in 1965 showed that…
one in five objected to working with black people or Asians, nine out of ten disapproved of mixed marriages
What was Heath’s reaction to Powell’s speech?
He sacked him from the shadow cabinet and never spoke to him again
There was a protest march to Downing Street in support of…
Powell
A Gallup poll found that…
75% of the population supported what Powell had said
Content summary:
> Growth of feminism
Women in education and the workplace
The Family Planning Act and the Pill
The Dagenham Protests
The Equal Pay Act
Drug culture
New youth cultures
Political activism
Protests against the Vietnam War
Racial tensions
Two Race Relations Acts
Race Relations Board
‘Rivers of blood’ speech
Community Relations Commission
Mass media development
Increased leisure
Scientific advances
Censorship
Britannia Airways flew holidaymakers to…
Spain and Malta
Scientific developments also included…
> New cars
> Household appliances
> New fabrics in fashion
> The contraceptive pill
New films allowed after theatrical censorship was abolished covered themes such as…
adultery, abortion, illegitimacy
Controversial films:
> Darling
> Alfie
> Here We Go Round The Mulberry Bush
Proponents of second-wave feminism argued that…
women were unfulfilled by the restricted nature of their lives
Key feminist texts:
> The Feminine Mystique
> Women: The Longest Revolution
> The Female Eunuch
While there were new labour-saving devices…
the advertising of these reinforced the female role as a housewife
Women often had a slow and difficult progress along…
career paths
The contraceptive pill can be said to have…
made men avoid responsibility for family planning
While access to divorce was easier…
perhaps it was more beneficial for women to be married as they still had a lack of economic independence
In 1970, the punishment for supplying drugs was…
increased to 14 years imprisonment
Surveys found that young people actually…
used alcohol and tobacco more than illegal drugs
Rates of sexually transmitted diseases…
were rising in 1964-70
Another television show broadcasting youth music…
Ready Steady Go from 1963
Hippies…
supported environmentalism and rejected social conventions
Within the first year of the Race Relations Board’s formation…
734 out of the 982 cases were dismissed because of a lack of evidence
