(!) 2:6 Liberal reforming legislation - Content Flashcards
Who was Wilson’s Home Secretary from December 1965?
Roy Jenkins
Jenkins found himself in a position needing to…
influence society by changing laws to allow for personal freedom to develop in Britain
What did Jenkins say in his book ‘The Labour Case’?
“there is the need for the State to do less to restrict personal freedom”
Laws on what are considered moral questions are usually…
free votes - where individual MPs can vote according to their own conscience and beliefs rather than official views dictated by their party
Although the vast majority of proposed legislation passing through Parliament is government bills, some liberal reforming legislation came through…
backbench MPs proposing legislation through private members’ bills
Why were private members’ bills particularly successful in the 1960s?
Jenkins was sympathetic and so enabled enough parliamentary time to be available for the reforms to be passed.
The anti-hanging/anti-death penalty campaign had been advancing in the…
1950s
What event boosted support for the argument against capital punishment?
The case of Ruth Ellis - a young mother who had murdered her unfaithful and abusive lover in 1955 and was hanged. Many thought this punishment wrong.
What did the Conservatives do in 1957 against capital punishment?
They reduced the number of offences carrying the death penalty
Which Labour backbencher continued to campaign tirelessly for a full abolition of the death penalty?
Sydney Silverman
What major advancement was made in 1965?
Hanging was abolished by the Murder Act of 1965, on a free vote, for a trial period of five years.
What major advancement was made in 1969?
The abolition of the death penalty was made permanent.
Before 1969, a divorce could only be allowed if…
one party had evidence that the other committed adultery. This was often only accessible by the rich, as they were the only ones who could afford cameras and private detectives.
What did the Divorce Reform Act of 1969 do?
It allowed for a ‘no fault divorce’ following the ‘irretrievable breakdown’ of a marriage. Couples could divorce if:
> they lived apart for 2 years and both agreed to a divorce
> they lived apart for 5 years and one agreed to a divorce
Although Jenkins was in support of this legislation, why were some MPs against it?
They believed it went against Christian values and traditions.
What was a consequence of the Divorce Reform Act?
There was a huge increase in the number of divorces in Britain.
How many divorces were there in 1950 in England and Wales?
Less than 2 divorces per 1000 married couples
How many divorces were there in the mid-1970s in England and Wales?
Nearly 10 in every 1000 marriages ended in divorce
Why might the Act not be fully responsible for this growth in divorces?
There was also a rise in female independence at the time
What was the legality status of abortion before 1967?
Illegal, except on strictly medical grounds
Illegal, except on strictly medical grounds
> Find a private clinic, but only if you could afford the fees
Find a backstreet abortionist
How many illegal abortions were carried out each year in Britain?
Between 100,000-200,000 abortions
How many women were admitted to hospital as a result of backstreet abortion complications each year?
Around 35,000 women
Between 1958-1960, how many women died after backstreet abortions?
82 women
Since what year had the Abortion Law Reform Association been campaigning for easier access to abortion?
1945
Which event swayed much of the public’s opinion towards the legalisation of abortion?
The thalidomide disaster of 1959-1962
How was the tripartite system viewed by the 1960s?
People no longer believed that the different types of secondary school were equal in status and did not create as much social mobility as proposed.
Why did the tripartite system not allow for social mobility?
Working class children only had a 1/10 chance of passing the 11+ exam, perhaps since wealthier families could afford to tutor their children. As a result, grammar schools were highly concentrated with middle-class children while most working-class children attended secondary modern or technical schools.
What were Local Education Authorities (LEAs) responsible for?
They were responsible for schools in a particular area.
What had the LEA begin establishing in some areas?
Comprehensive schools - schools that did not select its students based on academic ability and allowed every child similar opportunities to those in grammar schools.
By 1964, what proportion of pupils attended a comprehensive school?
1 in 10 pupils
Who became Minister of Education in 1965?
Tony Crosland
What were Crosland’s views on the education system?
He hated grammar schools and was a leading supporter of the comprehensive system - overall very much a socialist.
What did Crosland issue to all LEAs?
Circular 10/65 - a request to convert to comprehensive schools (not a requirement)
How did the government encourage this in 1966?
The government made money for new school buildings, on the condition that they were drawing up plans for comprehensives
By 1970, how many comprehensive schools were there?
1145 comprehensive schools
By 1970, what proportion of state-educated secondary pupils attended a comprehensive?
1 in 3 state-educated secondary pupils
Why were comprehensive schools not as successful as proposed?
The changes and adjustments in status for schools caused quite a lot of disruption at first, which deterred many middle-class parents.
How did Wilson try to justify this?
He claimed that comprehensives meant a ‘grammar school education for all’
However, when was the Society for the Protection of the Unborn Child set up to oppose the legalisation of abortion?
1966
Who led the abortion reform campaign in Parliament?
Liberal MP David Steel, who had the support of Jenkins
What did the Abortion Act of 1967 do?
> A pregnancy could legally be terminated within the first 28 weeks
However, it had to be under medical supervision and with the written consent of 2 doctors
The only justification needed was the ‘mental suffering’ of the pregnant woman
How many abortions were there in 1968?
35,000 abortions
How many abortions were there in 1975?
141,000 abortions
The fact that direct grant schools and independent schools remained meant that…
there was never truly a ‘fully comprehensive system’
What change did Jenkins make to English juries?
He brought in ‘majority’ verdicts, where now at least 10 jurors had to agree on a verdict rather than unanimity - where all 12 jurors had to agree
What else (relating to criminals) ceased after 1967?
The beating of prisoners
What was a success of the change to English juries?
It helped in convicting many dangerous and professional criminals
What was a failure of the abolition of capital punishment?
It did not significantly reduce the number of murders or violent crimes, as its supporters had hoped
Up until the 1960s, what was the punishment for men participating in homosexual acts?
Imprisonment for two years
What had the Conservative government done about the legal status of homosexual relations?
Nothing - they rejected the Wolfenden recommendation to decriminalise homosexuality
In 1964, what was the Labour party’s view on this matter?
They were divided
Which Labour backbencher took up the cause to decriminalise homosexual relations?
Leo Abse
How did Abse pass the 1967 Sexual Offences Act?
With Jenkins’ support, he was able to get enough parliamentary time for his private members’ bill to become law
The Sexual Offences Act did not legalise homosexual acts, but it did decriminalise them when three conditions were met;
> both partners had to consent
both had to be over the age of 21
it had to be in private
Who welcomed the act?
Men who had previously been afraid to declare their sexuality and even forced to lead double lives
How was ‘in private’ interpreted?
It was interpreted as no one else being in the same building, so it did not mean the complete end of prosecutions for homosexual practices
What led to the Robbins Committee in 1961?
Fears that Britain was slipping behind in science and technological education
What did the Robbins Report find?
Britain lagged behind France, Germany and the US in the provision of university places and that too many students followed arts-related courses to the exclusion of the study of science and technology.
Give 2 ways in which the Labour government expanded higher education?
> 9 Colleges of Advanced Technology became full universities
> ‘New’ universities were to be founded, and charters given to some
How many universities were there by 1968?
56 universities
The new universities opened up higher education to…
many students whose families had never attended a university. However, middle-class students still dominated the old universities.
Colleges of Technology were replaced by…
polytechnics - they focused on applied education for work and science
The Royal College of Scotland became…
Strathclyde University
‘New’ universities…
were to be founded
How many polytechnics were there by 1968?
30
Wilson said that his greatest achievement and what he wanted to be remembered for was…
the creation of the Open University
The Open University offered…
high-quality degree-level education in arts and sciences to people who did not have the opportunity to attend campus universities.
The establishment of the Open University combined Wilson’s enthusiasms for…
equal educational opportunities, modernisation and the ‘white heat of technology’
Who did Wilson appoint to oversee the creation of the Open University?
Jennie Lee as minister of education - she came from a working class family but had the opportunity to attend university. She wanted others to have this opportunity.
When and where was the Open University established?
1969 in Milton Keynes
Overall, the Open University was…
a rapid success
What did the ‘rivers of blood’ speech (1968) consist of?
> Strongly criticised mass immigration, especially from the Commonwealth
> Against the Race Relations legislation
Content summary:
> Jenkins as Home Secretary
Private members’ bills
Abolition of the death penalty
Divorce reform
Abortion reform
Crosland and comprehensive schools
Change to juries
Legalisation of homosexuality
Expansion of higher education
By 1970 all but 8 LEAs…
had drawn up plans to introduce comprehensive schools
Students at the Open University tended to come from less traditional backgrounds:
older people, women, working class people
