2f Environment Flashcards
What is the environment?
The surroundings and external conditions, especially as affecting human lives.
It is usually thought of as including the physico-chemical, biological, social and cultural factors, which individually and in combination influence human health and well-being.
What is environmental justice?
The notion of equity and justice in relation to environmental exposures and related health burdens born by groups defined on the basis of such factors as socio-economic status, ethnicity and gender.
What is the link between socio-economic status and environmental risk factors?
Socio-economic deprivation is important as a frequent determinant of environmental exposures (on average poorer people tend to live in more polluted, less healthy areas) and are more vulnerable to the effects of such exposures by virtue of their health status and poorer access to services.
At the same time, people in more deprived areas, who tend to consume fewer resources, are typically responsible for fewer of the emissions that cause environmental contamination. This is often labelled the issue of environmental justice (or injustice).
Give an example of environmental injustice.
Exposure to road traffic: poorer people tend to have poorer access to cars, but are often more exposed to traffic-related emissions, and more likely to live on main roads where there is cheaper housing;
Climate change: those in the richer countries are larger per capita contributors to the problem (produce more CO2), yet the burdens are likely to be greatest in low-income countries.
Give an example of a serious pollution episode.
1952 London smog, which was responsible for probably several thousand deaths in London as a result of the build up of sulphurous air pollution during a period of unusual meteorological conditions (temperature inversion) which reduced the dispersion of air pollutants.
1956 episode of organic mercury poisoning in Minamata, Japan, which arose from the release of methyl mercury in the industrial wastewater from a chemical factory, and its bioaccumulation in shellfish and fish in Minamata Bay, which were then when eaten by the local population.
1984 Bhopal disaster, in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, often considered the world’s worst industrial disaster, in which a release of 40 tonnes of methyl isocyanate gas from a subsidiary plant of the Union Carbide company killed several thousand people, many instantly, and injured many more.
1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident which resulted in the release of a plume of radioactive dust which drifted over the western Soviet Union (especially the Ukraine and Belarus), parts of Europe and eastern North America.
What are the global environmental effects of human life?
Global climate change (see section 3), arising from the emission of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases
Stratospheric ozone depletion, arising from the catalytic destruction of atomic chlorine and bromine derived from chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and other ozone-depleting substances, with consequent reduced protection to harmful ultraviolet-B(UVB) radiation at wavelengths 270 to 315 nm.
What is the environmental Kuznets’ curve?
It has been observed that exposures tend to follow an inverted-U trajectory over time as exposures rise and then fall in parallel with increasing wealth, literacy and technological development. This is referred to as the ‘environmental Kuznets’ curve.
In which ways are low, middle and high-income populations generally affected by environmental exposures?
Low-income populations tend to suffer most from household exposures, such as those relating to lack of access to clean water and sanitation, and exposure to indoor pollution from the inefficient and inadequately ventilated burning of biomass fuels for domestic cooking and heating.
Middle-income populations on the other hand suffer more from community-level pollution, such as urban outdoor air pollution, contaminated water sources, and occupational hazards.
High-income populations have, for the most part, reduced these risks, but contribute disproportionately to global problems, including greenhouse gas emissions, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), ozone-depleting gases, and urban non-biodegradable waste.
What is the international Global Burden of Disease?
An initiative to derive estimates of mortality and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for selected causes, including environmental exposures.
For the environment they indicate that the largest burdens globally arise from unsafe water and sanitation and indoor smoke (both mainly affecting populations in the developing world), and outdoor air pollution (mainly affecting middle-income populations, especially in Asia). The effects of global climate change are expected to grow substantially over time.
Estimates suggest that somewhere between a quarter and a third of the global burden of disease and premature death is attributable to direct environmental risk factors.
What are the challenges with assessing the disease burden of different environmental exposures?
Difficult definition of environmental exposure
Incomplete evidence about aetiology
Complexities of assessing exposures and their longer-term effects.
What is exposure in terms of environmental health?
The (degree of) contact with a hazardous agent of disease such that harmful effects or disease transmission may occur.
Commonly used to refer a measure of the amount of a hazardous agent to which an individual is exposed.
What is a hazard in terms of environmental health?
A factor or exposure that may adversely affect health; anything that has the potential to cause harm.
What is the hazard rate in terms of environmental health?
A theoretical measure of the risk (probability) of occurrence of an event, e.g. death or new disease, at a point in time, t.
This is sometimes referred to simply as ‘the hazard’, hence ‘hazard function’.
What is rate in terms of environmental health?
The number of new disease cases occurring among a defined population calculated per person-time of follow-up.
What is the difference between the classical epidemiological definition of risk and the risk management definition?
(1) Epidemiological definition
The probability that an event will occur e.g. that an individual will become ill or die within a stated period of time or age. Formally defined as the proportion of initially disease-free individuals who develop the disease over a defined period of observation.
(2) Risk management definition
The probability that an adverse event will occur (such as exposure from a chemical incident) times the consequences of the adverse event
What is the Relative risk/risk ratio
The ratio of two risks (or, informally, of rates or odds) comparing the risk of disease or death among the exposed to the risk among the unexposed.
What is the risk management definition of risk?
Risk = probability of an accident X losses per accident
Thus similar risk may be obtained by high impact but low probability or by low impact and high probability of occurring. By this definition, risks are assessed by rating their impact and their probability to yield a product risk score.
What is the risk management definition of risk?
Risk = probability of an accident X losses per accident
Thus similar risk may be obtained by high impact but low probability or by low impact and high probability of occurring. By this definition, risks are assessed by rating their impact and their probability to yield a product risk score.
Which factors influence the way people interpret environmental risks?
The degree to which the risk is perceived as controllable or exposure as avoidable
The level of knowledge/certainty about its nature and effects
The trustworthiness of the authorities that provide information about it and are responsible for managing it.
What are the main ways that climate change can impact public health?
The direct impact of climate change e.g. flooding, temperature changes
The indirect effects of having to move to a more environmentally friendly world e.g. Changes in energy use & transportation
What is meant by adaptation in the field of environmental health?
Strategies, policies and measures undertaken now and in the future to reduce potential adverse impacts of climate change.
What is the climate?
The average state of the atmosphere and the underlying land or water in a specific region over a specified time scale (usually longer term).
Should be distinguished from weather, which is the atmospheric conditions at a specific place and time, usually the day to day variations.
What is climate change?
A statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its measurable variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer).
What are Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)?
Gases present in the Earth’s atmosphere which reduce the loss of heat into space and therefore contribute to global temperatures through the greenhouse effect.
What is the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)?
An international body of scientists tasked with evaluating the risk of climate change caused by human activity. It was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), two organisations of the United Nations.
What is meant by the term mitigation in relation to environmental health?
A human intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases.
Why do carbon emissions matter?
As greenhouse gas emissions (including CO2) from human activities increase, they build up in the atmosphere and warm the climate
What are the direct impacts of climate change on health?
Health impacts of temperature extremes, specifically of heat waves.
Increased frequency of extreme weather events, including severe storms, floods and droughts.
Sea level rise which will threaten many low-lying areas with inundation.
Increased frequency of food- and water-borne diseases.
Potential for change in the seasonal patterns or geographical distribution of some vector-borne disease.
Interactions with air pollution and effects on the seasonality and duration of aeroallergens.
What are the indirect health impacts of climate change?
Impacts on water resources and agricultural productivity – with potential for socio-economic dislocation and mass migration of environmental refugees.
What is the difference between mitigation and adaptation in relation to combating climate change?
Adaptation controls for the current effects of climate change e.g. preparing for floods or droughts, vaccinating against disease, and preparing housing for mass migration.
Mitigation aims to reduce any further climate change e.g. Moving to non-fossil fuels.
What key legislation does the UK follow in relation to climate change?
The Paris UN Climate Change Agreement: on 22 April 2016 – 175 world leaders signed the Paris Agreement at the United Nations Headquarters. Adopted in Paris by the 196 parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at a conference known as (COP21), the Agreement’s objective is to limit global temperature rise to well below 2 degrees Celsius, and to strive for 1.5 degrees Celsius. At least 55 countries, accounting for 55 per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions, deposit their instruments of ratification.
The UK Climate Change Act 2008 requires the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80% lower than the 1990 baseline, towards actions avoiding dangerous climate change, and a 35% reduction by 2020 for the UK. The Act promotes the UK to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets. An independent Committee on Climate Change was created under the Act to provide advice to Government on these targets and related policies
What have been the main impacts of unsustainable human habits globally?
Biodiversity loss (loss of whole species and many local populations)
Changes to the composition of the atmosphere
Over-exploitation of the great aquifers
Reduction of productive soils
Depletion of ocean fisheries
Growing demand for energy based on the exploitation of fossil energy sources
An increasing problem of waste disposal.
What is agenda 21?
A United Nations programme on sustainable development that sets out a ‘comprehensive plan of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by organisations of the UN, governments and major groups in every area in which humans impact on the environment’. The number 21 refers to the 21st century.
What is sustainable development?
Development of resources that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs in a similar manner
What is the UN CSD?
United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development
