2a.2 The rise of Mussolini and the creation of a fascist dictatorship 1919-26 Flashcards
‘Mutilated victory’
A term used by famous poet Gabriele d’Annunzio to describe the national shame that Italy faced, disgracing the 600,000 soldiers who had lost their lives in the war.
–> as a result of the government’s failure to gain the all promised parts of the Irredente lands, failure to gain Fiume or any of Germany’s colonial territories in Africa
–> It demonstrated the weakness of the liberal government and Italy’s lowly position in relation to the other European powers
Social problems within Italy post WW1
Divisions between differing Italian classes were accentuated and violence between political groups rocked the country.
-rising tension in south as returning conscripts pushed for the land reforms they had been promised during the war
-demobilised soldiers in the south forcibly occupied hundreds of thousands of hectares of farming land
- Industrial North: growing divide between returning soldiers and the workers who had been exempted from military service in order to maintain key industries for war
–> seen as cowards and shirkers who stayed and got wealthier whilst others risked their lives
Italy in the Paris Peace conference (January 1919)
Vittorio Orland (PM) argued Italy should be given all territory promised in Treaty of London 1915 plus port of Fiume.
- Key leaders (Woodrow Wilson, David Lloyd George and Georges Clemenceau) viewed Italy condescendingly & felt it didn’t deserve its ‘great power’ status
–> Initially rejected Italy’s claim on Fiume and parts of the treaty of London. Orlando pleaded for this territorial expansion yet after he was rejected, he walked out of the conference in April.
–> Orlando resigned in June.
Italy had managed to acquire Trent & Trieste, Istria and northern Dalmatia
Nitti’s nonsense
Francesco Nitti replaced Orlando on 23rd June 1919.
- due to a weakening economy and need for coal & money that only the Allies could provide, he downplayed Italy’s claims to maintain a good relationship with Allies.
-allowed Yugoslavia to take Dalmatia and for Fiume to become a neutral city under protection of League of Nations
-reduced military spending and issued an amnesty to those Italian soldiers who deserted WW1
Actions drew considerable anger and disgust from nationalists and military (called Nitti a Cagoia: abject coward). Mussolini argued Italy required a stronger government that would not back down like the weak liberals and would instead fight to regain Italy’s former glory.
Occupation of Fiume and Gabrielle d’Annunzio
Nationalist right-wing groups ( made up of mainly returned soldiers and young men) challenged the government in Rome
–> spoke about establishing a powerful new government to assert Italy’s greatness. Very angry about mutilated victory
–> 1919 12th September: Gabriele d’Annunzio took action with 2000 men (ex-soldiers, futurists, students and patriots), taking over the port of Fiume without any fight. Fiume was one of Italy’s greatest shames post WW1 so capturing it overcame some of the shame.
–> For 15 months they occupied the territory due to the Italian government being too scared to intervene.
–> Eventually removed in 1920 Christmas Day
Futurists
group that shared values of the right wing, lead by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti in 1909
–> celebrated war, violence and patriotism and despised the old liberal system
Post Fiume Occupation and Gabrielle d’Annunzio
D’Annunzio’s actions were very popular as he demonstrated the frailties of the government and that success could be achieved through violent and decisive action.
–> daringly flew a plane over Vienna dropping 400,000 leaflets
–>sung fascist anthems and songs, wore blackshirts and gave emotional speeches
Post-war economic crisis and social discontent: city
Job market was flooded due to demobilisation & by 1919 November, unemplyment reached 2 million.
–> Inflation was at a high level, lira collapsed in value
–> middle-class saw savings get wiped out and state employee wages/ pensions declined rapidly. Major companeis (e.g. Fiat, Ansaldo and Ilva) struggled
–> 1921, Ansaldo and Ilva (major munitions companies) collapsed, causing Banca di Sconto to close.
–> Bienno Rosso: lots of strikes between 1919 and 1920
Bienno Rosso
Post WW1: anarchist and social radicals were released and were heavily inspired by Russia’s communist revolution (campaigned for better workers rights/ revolution).
Members of socialist unions grew from 250k in 1918 to 2 million by 1920
–>1919: rising food prices caused riots in norther and central Italy
–>January 1920: railway strikes
–> April/ September: telegraph worker strikes
–> July: army troops’ strike
–> largest strike September: 400k workers took over factories, flew the red communist flags and black anarchism flags for approx 4 weeks
Post-war economic crisis and social discontent: country side
Government promises to peasants concerning land reforms did not meet their expectations (was not enough)
–> marched onto barren/uncultivated land and raised flags before setting up work
Rural socialist unions were very strong in areas like Ferrara and Bologna , controlling employment of rural labourers, excluding farming labourers (not members of socialist union,) and attacking people who refused to join
1919 Political Reforms
Amount of people allowed to vote incrased by 11 million
–> new law that allowed all Italians who served at front or any other male above 21 to be able to vote
–> proportional representation
Growth of socialist and Catholic parties
Partito Popolare Italiano (PPI) formed in 1919 by Priest Luigi Sturzo
–> not affiliated with the Vatican, major supporter of land reform
PSI were also growing stronger as war and revolution in Russia had encouraged the PSI to take a more radical approach.
Result and impact of elections 1919
PSI: greatest share, 32% with 156 seats
PPI: second largest: 101 seats (worked with PSI in a coalition)
Formation of the Fasci di Combattimento
March 23rd 1919: Benito Mussolini called 20 ex-servicemen’s leagues to Miland and formed the Fasci (Fasci di Combattimento)
–> Mussolini saw the that the power of war could bring Italians together (experienced this in trenches) and that the extreme nature of the war and the camaraderie felt by fighting produced a mutual feeling of belonging ( no class divisions)
–> Trincerocrazia: rule of trenches where men were linked by their war consciousness
–>Trinceristi: the returned soldiers who were believed to have the strength and moral right to lead a new Italy that would replicate the patriotic feeling of unity.
Fasci di Combattimento’s party programme
Vague programme but clearly showed Mussolini’s socialist background (made it hard to distinguish from the other left wing parties)
June: set out a programme that was anticlerical and wanted the confiscation of church property,
-called for the end of the monarchy,
-formation of a republic,
-suffrage to be extended to women and younger Italians,
-establishment of 8 hour working days,
abolition of the senate
–> demanded nationalisation of armaments industry, progressive taxation, confiscation of profits from war-profit companies
–> 3000 members by June & made up of Arditi (crack troop commandos from WW1)
Fasci (etymology)
refers to roman emblem of a bundle of wooden rods bound together with an axe
- symbolises strength through unity and that many sticks are stronger than one stick on its own
–> During war they wore black uniforms and their emblem was a black flag with a white skull gripping a dagger at its teeth (black shirts)
Squadrismo organisation and the move to the right
Fascists had formed themselves into small, military units or squads (squadrismo) and the members (squadristi) answered to the socialist threat with violence
-formed into military style units with a commanding officer known asa ras (wore blackshirts and mainly carried a revolver and manganello: club ) - very popular within countryside: wealth y land owners were happy to see socialists attacked - KEY IDEA: that ex soldiers had saved Italy from the 'traitors' and 'radicals' who sought to destroy Italy
Squads and their key dates
–> April 15th 1919: fascist squad of 200-300 dressed in black and attacked a socialist demonstration in Milan and burnt down Milan offices for Avanti!
–> obvious that police, army and government would tolerate squads due to their fear of a socialist revolution (weapons supplied by local police and army barracks)
–> attacked socialist councils and supporters across Italy. They used caster oil torture and within the first 5 months of 1921, 200 people were killed and 1000 wounded
Political legitimacy in May elections 1921
Fascism began to gain more political legitimacy:
-police sometimes joined in when fascists attacked socialists
-respectable liberal politicians agreed that squads were restoring law and order
-May 1921 general election: FASCISTS WON 7% OF VOTES and 35 SEATS IN parliament
–> gave Mussolini new respectability and authority as a member of parliament, legitimising fascism as a political force
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Fascist ‘New Programme’
May 1920, at 2nd fascist nationa congress, a New Programme was passed
-more conservative and right wing (no anticlerical or anti monarch ideas)
-more pro-business attitude
-more militaristic in tone (compulsory military service)
PNF
October 1921: fascism was made into a formal political party known as Partito Nazionale Fascista
–> Muss. tried to centralise his power over the movement
–> PNF founded local branches and attempted to recruit more ‘respectable members’ (to advance appeal of party beyond certain classes)
Nature and extent of fascist support
End of 1921: Fascism grew to 200k members & appealed strongly to urban middle class, professional white-collar workers and small business owners (feared taxes and revolution that the PSI could implement)
–> Countryside: middle and upper class of land owners as well as wealthier farmers and peasants saw fascism asa mean of protecting their life style
Political unrest: weakness of fascism’s opposition
January 1921: more radical members of the PSI split to form the Partito Comunista Italiano (PCI)
-wanted revolution and an end to capitalist system in Italy. Worked closely with Bolsheviks
—> split caused the PSI to weaken in political power + Italians wanted more stable social and economic situation
—> Appearance of an official communist party that spoke of revolution was excellent progress for Mussolini
