2a.2 The rise of Mussolini and the creation of a fascist dictatorship 1919-26

Question 1

‘Mutilated victory’

Answer 1

A term used by famous poet Gabriele d’Annunzio to describe the national shame that Italy faced, disgracing the 600,000 soldiers who had lost their lives in the war.
–> as a result of the government’s failure to gain the all promised parts of the Irredente lands, failure to gain Fiume or any of Germany’s colonial territories in Africa

–> It demonstrated the weakness of the liberal government and Italy’s lowly position in relation to the other European powers

Question 2

Social problems within Italy post WW1

Answer 2

Divisions between differing Italian classes were accentuated and violence between political groups rocked the country.

-rising tension in south as returning conscripts pushed for the land reforms they had been promised during the war

-demobilised soldiers in the south forcibly occupied hundreds of thousands of hectares of farming land

• Industrial North: growing divide between returning soldiers and the workers who had been exempted from military service in order to maintain key industries for war
  –> seen as cowards and shirkers who stayed and got wealthier whilst others risked their lives

Question 3

Italy in the Paris Peace conference (January 1919)

Answer 3

Vittorio Orland (PM) argued Italy should be given all territory promised in Treaty of London 1915 plus port of Fiume.
- Key leaders (Woodrow Wilson, David Lloyd George and Georges Clemenceau) viewed Italy condescendingly & felt it didn’t deserve its ‘great power’ status
–> Initially rejected Italy’s claim on Fiume and parts of the treaty of London. Orlando pleaded for this territorial expansion yet after he was rejected, he walked out of the conference in April.
–> Orlando resigned in June.

Italy had managed to acquire Trent & Trieste, Istria and northern Dalmatia

Question 4

Nitti’s nonsense

Answer 4

Francesco Nitti replaced Orlando on 23rd June 1919.
- due to a weakening economy and need for coal & money that only the Allies could provide, he downplayed Italy’s claims to maintain a good relationship with Allies.

-allowed Yugoslavia to take Dalmatia and for Fiume to become a neutral city under protection of League of Nations

-reduced military spending and issued an amnesty to those Italian soldiers who deserted WW1

Actions drew considerable anger and disgust from nationalists and military (called Nitti a Cagoia: abject coward). Mussolini argued Italy required a stronger government that would not back down like the weak liberals and would instead fight to regain Italy’s former glory.

Question 5

Occupation of Fiume and Gabrielle d’Annunzio

Answer 5

Nationalist right-wing groups ( made up of mainly returned soldiers and young men) challenged the government in Rome
–> spoke about establishing a powerful new government to assert Italy’s greatness. Very angry about mutilated victory
–> 1919 12th September: Gabriele d’Annunzio took action with 2000 men (ex-soldiers, futurists, students and patriots), taking over the port of Fiume without any fight. Fiume was one of Italy’s greatest shames post WW1 so capturing it overcame some of the shame.
–> For 15 months they occupied the territory due to the Italian government being too scared to intervene.
–> Eventually removed in 1920 Christmas Day

Question 6

Futurists

Answer 6

group that shared values of the right wing, lead by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti in 1909
–> celebrated war, violence and patriotism and despised the old liberal system

Question 7

Post Fiume Occupation and Gabrielle d’Annunzio

Answer 7

D’Annunzio’s actions were very popular as he demonstrated the frailties of the government and that success could be achieved through violent and decisive action.
–> daringly flew a plane over Vienna dropping 400,000 leaflets
–>sung fascist anthems and songs, wore blackshirts and gave emotional speeches

Question 8

Post-war economic crisis and social discontent: city

Answer 8

Job market was flooded due to demobilisation & by 1919 November, unemplyment reached 2 million.
–> Inflation was at a high level, lira collapsed in value
–> middle-class saw savings get wiped out and state employee wages/ pensions declined rapidly. Major companeis (e.g. Fiat, Ansaldo and Ilva) struggled
–> 1921, Ansaldo and Ilva (major munitions companies) collapsed, causing Banca di Sconto to close.

–> Bienno Rosso: lots of strikes between 1919 and 1920

Question 9

Bienno Rosso

Answer 9

Post WW1: anarchist and social radicals were released and were heavily inspired by Russia’s communist revolution (campaigned for better workers rights/ revolution).
Members of socialist unions grew from 250k in 1918 to 2 million by 1920
–>1919: rising food prices caused riots in norther and central Italy
–>January 1920: railway strikes
–> April/ September: telegraph worker strikes
–> July: army troops’ strike
–> largest strike September: 400k workers took over factories, flew the red communist flags and black anarchism flags for approx 4 weeks

Question 10

Post-war economic crisis and social discontent: country side

Answer 10

Government promises to peasants concerning land reforms did not meet their expectations (was not enough)
–> marched onto barren/uncultivated land and raised flags before setting up work

Rural socialist unions were very strong in areas like Ferrara and Bologna , controlling employment of rural labourers, excluding farming labourers (not members of socialist union,) and attacking people who refused to join

Question 11

1919 Political Reforms

Answer 11

Amount of people allowed to vote incrased by 11 million
–> new law that allowed all Italians who served at front or any other male above 21 to be able to vote
–> proportional representation

Question 12

Growth of socialist and Catholic parties

Answer 12

Partito Popolare Italiano (PPI) formed in 1919 by Priest Luigi Sturzo
–> not affiliated with the Vatican, major supporter of land reform

PSI were also growing stronger as war and revolution in Russia had encouraged the PSI to take a more radical approach.

Question 13

Result and impact of elections 1919

Answer 13

PSI: greatest share, 32% with 156 seats
PPI: second largest: 101 seats (worked with PSI in a coalition)

Question 14

Formation of the Fasci di Combattimento

Answer 14

March 23rd 1919: Benito Mussolini called 20 ex-servicemen’s leagues to Miland and formed the Fasci (Fasci di Combattimento)
–> Mussolini saw the that the power of war could bring Italians together (experienced this in trenches) and that the extreme nature of the war and the camaraderie felt by fighting produced a mutual feeling of belonging ( no class divisions)

–> Trincerocrazia: rule of trenches where men were linked by their war consciousness
–>Trinceristi: the returned soldiers who were believed to have the strength and moral right to lead a new Italy that would replicate the patriotic feeling of unity.

Question 15

Fasci di Combattimento’s party programme

Answer 15

Vague programme but clearly showed Mussolini’s socialist background (made it hard to distinguish from the other left wing parties)
June: set out a programme that was anticlerical and wanted the confiscation of church property,
-called for the end of the monarchy,
-formation of a republic,
-suffrage to be extended to women and younger Italians,
-establishment of 8 hour working days,
abolition of the senate
–> demanded nationalisation of armaments industry, progressive taxation, confiscation of profits from war-profit companies
–> 3000 members by June & made up of Arditi (crack troop commandos from WW1)

Question 16

Fasci (etymology)

Answer 16

refers to roman emblem of a bundle of wooden rods bound together with an axe
- symbolises strength through unity and that many sticks are stronger than one stick on its own

–> During war they wore black uniforms and their emblem was a black flag with a white skull gripping a dagger at its teeth (black shirts)

Question 17

Squadrismo organisation and the move to the right

Answer 17

Fascists had formed themselves into small, military units or squads (squadrismo) and the members (squadristi) answered to the socialist threat with violence

 -formed into military style units with a commanding officer known asa ras (wore blackshirts and mainly carried a revolver and manganello: club )

- very popular within countryside: wealth y land owners were happy to see socialists attacked 
- KEY IDEA: that ex soldiers had saved Italy from the 'traitors' and 'radicals' who sought to destroy Italy

Question 18

Squads and their key dates

Answer 18

–> April 15th 1919: fascist squad of 200-300 dressed in black and attacked a socialist demonstration in Milan and burnt down Milan offices for Avanti!
–> obvious that police, army and government would tolerate squads due to their fear of a socialist revolution (weapons supplied by local police and army barracks)
–> attacked socialist councils and supporters across Italy. They used caster oil torture and within the first 5 months of 1921, 200 people were killed and 1000 wounded

Question 19

Political legitimacy in May elections 1921

Answer 19

Fascism began to gain more political legitimacy:
-police sometimes joined in when fascists attacked socialists
-respectable liberal politicians agreed that squads were restoring law and order
-May 1921 general election: FASCISTS WON 7% OF VOTES and 35 SEATS IN parliament

–> gave Mussolini new respectability and authority as a member of parliament, legitimising fascism as a political force

Question 20

.

Answer 20

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Question 21

Fascist ‘New Programme’

Answer 21

May 1920, at 2nd fascist nationa congress, a New Programme was passed
-more conservative and right wing (no anticlerical or anti monarch ideas)
-more pro-business attitude
-more militaristic in tone (compulsory military service)

Question 22

PNF

Answer 22

October 1921: fascism was made into a formal political party known as Partito Nazionale Fascista
–> Muss. tried to centralise his power over the movement
–> PNF founded local branches and attempted to recruit more ‘respectable members’ (to advance appeal of party beyond certain classes)

Question 23

Nature and extent of fascist support

Answer 23

End of 1921: Fascism grew to 200k members & appealed strongly to urban middle class, professional white-collar workers and small business owners (feared taxes and revolution that the PSI could implement)
–> Countryside: middle and upper class of land owners as well as wealthier farmers and peasants saw fascism asa mean of protecting their life style

Question 24

Political unrest: weakness of fascism’s opposition

Answer 24

January 1921: more radical members of the PSI split to form the Partito Comunista Italiano (PCI)
-wanted revolution and an end to capitalist system in Italy. Worked closely with Bolsheviks
—> split caused the PSI to weaken in political power + Italians wanted more stable social and economic situation
—> Appearance of an official communist party that spoke of revolution was excellent progress for Mussolini

Question 25

Political unrest: 1922 strike

Answer 25

July 1922: PSI and PCI attempted to encourage further pressure on the political system by backing the call for a 24 hour strike
—> most workers did not support this and the strike faded out (crucial error for left wing)
—> Mussolini said that the strike failed only due to the fascists opposition and the myth thst only the PNF had spared Italy from Revolution

Question 26

Political unrest: Giolitti’s old tactics

Answer 26

Compromise and transformismo were proving inadequate:
- strong ideologies of new parties (e.g. PNF, PCI and PPI) were unlikely to support Giolitti in parliament
- increased number of parties meant harder to organise a working coalition
- individual parties despised each other and had no interest in working together (PNF and PCI wanted political turmoil)
- 1921 election: Giolitti tried to absorb fascists by offering a place in his national bloc on the ballot paper (terrible mistake )
- 123 socialist seats, 15 communist, 107 PPI and 35 fascist deputies
-Giolitti resigned

Question 27

Dual policy and the pact of pacification

Answer 27

Balancing Legal methods of power and illegal methods of power:
—> July 1921: called an end to squadristi violence, concerned that with the fear of communist revolution fading, supporters would question Fascist violence
—> August 1921: Pact of Pacificafion with socialist union and PSI to bring necessary political and social peace to Italy (real goal of cynical manoevering: Mussolini was hoping that liberals and catholics would come stop him making a deal with the socialists)

Question 28

What was one of Mussolini’s key issues?

Answer 28

Until 1921 Oct, Fascism was only a movement not an organised party
–> M had squads known as ras who built up extremely solid power bases in the provinces

Question 29

How did the ras react to the pact of pacification?

Answer 29

3 most powerful ras: Dino Grandi, Italo Balbo and Roberto Farinacci condemned the pact squadristi meetings were held to cancel pact
–> M reacted by claiming he would resign as leader & did so on 18th August 1921
–> as a result, the squads had no unity or direction, being unable to work together to formulate policy

Question 30

What did M offer to Dino Grandi to gain his loyalty?

What happened in the PNF conference of 1921 November?

Answer 30

prominent position on new fascist journal

Overwhelming votes on supporting Mussolini as leader (proved that without him, the party lacked vision, charisma and unity)

Question 31

Due to the votes at the PNF conference nov 1921, how was Mussolini’s position even more stable?

Answer 31

he had gained the support of the majority of ras and the complete control of the squadristi
–> M was still asked to drop pact of pacification which wasn’t a problem
–> by October 1921 M had already believed that squadristi violence was key

Question 32

How were squads more organised by the end of 1921

Answer 32

being grouped into cohorts which were under the control of consorts
–> consols were organised under zone commanders

Question 33

How did fascist violence expand throughout 1922?

Answer 33

blackshirts attacked throughout italy, especially where socialists controlled the local council
–> M was helped due to the inadequecy of prime minister Luigi Facta (weak and complacent)
–> By september, squads had taken over areas around Rome and were ready to move into capital

Question 34

By how much did the Fascists grow in 1922 overall? What promise did Mussolini make?

Answer 34

grew to 320K members and nearly half a million workers had joined fascist trade unions
–> he promised that if fascists were accepted within government coalition, he would pursue a moderate conservative policy, backing the monarchy, reducing taxes and balancing the budget

Question 35

By how much did the Fascists grow in 1922 overall? What promise did Mussolini make?

Answer 35

grew to 320K members and nearly half a million workers had joined fascist trade unions
–> he promised that if fascists were accepted within government coalition, he would pursue a moderate conservative policy, backing the monarchy, reducing taxes and balancing the budget

Question 36

How did Mussolini begin pressuring the government?

Answer 36

he targeted Bolzano and Trent which were conservative liberal run
–> M was challenging government itself and the liberals were divided on how to respond
–> Mussolini cleverly encouraged the divide by promising separately Nitti, Salandra, Facta and Giolitti that they would become PM

Question 37

March on Rome timeline

Answer 37

24th October: M makes a public speech in Naples to either govern or seize power from Rome

27th Oct: Fascists began their march on rome, occupying government offices and telephone exchanges, police stations. PM Facta requested king to proclaim martial law and use the army

28th Oct: King agreed to martial law but later on the same day, the King decides not to enforce martial law. Facta resigns and the King turned to Salandra

29th Oct: king invites M to be PM of Italy

30th Oct: M arrives in Rome and meets king, being sworn in as pM of Italy

31st Oct: victory paraade