2.A - why has migration become increasingly complex?

Question 1

what was global migration traditionally like?

Answer 1

• traditionally, migration occurred from “poorer, southern countries” to “richer, northern” countries.
• these flows were often linked to colonial ties (india-UK), or geographical promiximity (USA-Mexico)
• these flows had a level of inequality, in that the younger, more motivated men migrated to work in ACs, accepting the poorly paid jobs with little job security, but in return their families gained a better standard of living and their children could get a better education and opportunities.
• often, the men would leave women and children at home whilst they went to work.

Question 2

(migration becoming more complex)
economic globalisation leads to…

Answer 2

the emergence of new source areas and host destinations

Question 3

how does economic globalisation lead to the emergence of new source areas and host destinations?

Answer 3

• as globalisation occurs, countries become more inter-linked with flows of people and money.
• as more countries develop, they attract flows of migrants to them
• also, as many ACs tighten migration policies, migrants look for new countries to move to

Question 4

key flows showing how economic globalisation lead to the emergence of new source areas and host destinations

Answer 4

• an increasing number of countries and their economies have become more interdependent (GLOBALISATION)
• the ↑ complexity of global migration can be linked to this ↑ in the globalisation process
• major bi-lateral corridors and traditional migration partnerships have remained strong, but in addition new places of origin and new destinations for migrants have emerged as the effects of globalisation have spread.
• mexico to USA- looking for jobs, better education and opportunities
• Qatar has 91% migrant population
• india to middle east

Question 5

what type of migration occurs with economic globalisation?

Answer 5

• migration will usually be intra-regional because this is easier, less dangerous and cheaper.
• as LIDCs develop unevenly, there will be natural migration into the countries that are developing faster (they don’t need to be developed, just more so than the countries around them)

Question 6

what does economic globalisation migration set off?

Answer 6

POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOP

Question 7

example of intra-regional migrant flow

Answer 7

intra-regional migrant flow within South America
- to the southern cone of Argentina, Chile, Paraguay and Uraguay
- regional integrations has eased immigration through free movement of labour
- 28.5 m people living outside countries of origin in South America

Question 8

examples of 2 new inter-regional flows of migrants

Answer 8

1. migration of highly skilled workers from China, India and Brazil to the USA, including graduates, especially in science, maths and technology and those in professional and business services, attracted by high salaries and the QoL
2. migration of workers from Bangladesh, the Philippines and Indonesia to oil-producing Saudi Arabia. attracted by increased demand for labour, relatively high wages, ease of returning formal remittances, accomodation and improved transport and communications

Question 9

examples of 3 new intra-regional flows of migrants

Answer 9

1. • rapid increase of international migrant stock among ASEAN member states - the fast growing economies of Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand are the main destinations, and Myanmar and Lao the main sources.
   • Most migrants are low-skilled, many undocumented, seeking employment and higher wages via cyclical migration to countries of higher socio-economic development.
2. • ↑ migration streams within S America, especially to the “southern cone” of Argentina, chile, paraguay and uraguay.
   • the main drivers are disparities in wages and labour opportunities.
   • regional integration/ trading blocs have also eased immigration through free movement of labour
3. • return migration has been a high proportion of migrant flows within the EU - such as Romania (93% of its total migration)
   • this included young workers having achieved their pre-planned economic goals after 2-3 yrs, often taking low skilled jobs abroad before returning to more prestigious positions in their home country.

Question 10

examples of 1 new internal flows of migrants

Answer 10

• internal migrant flows within EDCs such as India, China, Mexico and Brazil, driven by FDI which has created agglomerations of economic activity near large urban centres.
• rural-urban migration is not new but it has been reinforced and is a major element of the global migration system

Question 11

how are patterns of female migration changing?

Answer 11

• over last 20 yrs, number of women migrants has ↑ worldwide, as global demand for labour focused on domestic work, services and hospitality has increased.
• 2016 women = more than half of the worlds 232 million migrants
• some migrate independently as breadwinners for families, others will be trafficked and suffer human rights abuses
• if women dont migrate themselves, they become heads of household and family welfare improves as women choose to spend the money on health and education

Question 12

how can migration benefit women?

Answer 12

• migration can enhance the independence of women and well as their authority and worth in their communities
• introduction to more equitable social norms = improved women’s rights
• when they return home they maintain their autonomy, bring new skills and help change gender stereotypes
• this may include changing expectations on family size, challenging accepted ideas re FGM and the role of women
• migrant women tend to send home a higher % of their earning as remittances (although they may earn less due to nature of their work)

Question 13

what are some of the reasons women and children are now migrating?

Answer 13

• men who have already made the journey are now bringing their families to join them
• women and children have a higher chance of recieving protection in EU countries, so more are risking the journey

Question 14

what has increased female migration highlighted?

Answer 14

• problems such as lack of female facilities
• exposure to assult and rape on their journeys to Europe

Question 15

which demographic group of migrants are most common?

Answer 15

• male dominance
• largest groups are young, aged 25-39
• demand for workers in the oil producing countries of the Middle East such as UAE, Qatar and Saudi Arabi is an example of young, labour driven migration
• majority are low skilled, many not educated beyond primary level.

Question 16

example of south-south migrant flows

Answer 16

• Ghana to Nigeria (West Africa has very high levels of intra-regional migration along a corridor stretching from Abidjan to Lagos
• Myanmar to Thailand (one of Asia’s largest migration corridors)

Question 17

what does the global south refer to?

Answer 17

• africa
• South and Latin America
• South Asia
• back in the 1950s, these were all LIDCs, but the pattern of development is far more complex now

Question 18

(migration becoming more complex)
flows in South-South corridors are equal…

Answer 18

… in magnitude to flows in South-North corridors

Question 19

what does UN data show?

Answer 19

• that migration flows in south-south corridors are now equal to or greater in magnitude than south-north movements of people
• much of this consists of voluntary economic migration, although there are significant refugee flows also

Question 20

what is the difference between south-south and south-north flows?

Answer 20

not much difference - shows the increase in magnitude of south-south migration

Question 21

what fraction of migrant remittances were sent between south-south flows in 2013?

Answer 21

2/3

• Bangladesh -> India corridor which had the world’s 3rd largest bilateral flow of 3.3 million migrants

Question 22

how do refugees contribute to south-south and south-north flows?

Answer 22

• increase in refugees fleeing persecution/conflict
• such as 2.3 mil having migrated from Afghanistan -> Pakistan

Question 23

give the 4 main reasons for a growth in south-south flows

Answer 23

1. restrictive administrative barriers for migrant from the South attempting to enter the North; often in response they redirect their migration to another south country
2. the number of fast growing economies in the south which offer employment opportunities are increasingly accessible
3. increased awareness of opportunities in the South resulting from improved communications and developing social and business networks
4. preventative costs of moving to more distant richer countries

Question 24

for the Burkina Faso/Ivory Coast example of south-south flow, give some key facts about it and identify the key push and pull factors

Answer 24

Burkina Faso:
- landlocked, low income

Ivory Coast:
- world’s largest exporter of cocoa

• 2013 = 560000 Ivorians living in Burkina Faso. 1.46 mill from Burkina Faso living in Ivory Coast
• employment opportunities and higher wages available in the ivory coast’s cocoa and coffee plants. income disparity between the 2 countries is relatively small but sufficient to encourage sig. flows
• opportunities for migrant farmers in the more fertile lands of ivory coast
• former french colonial administration in both countries has led to shared language, currency and a cultural system which has made it easier for those of Burkinabe descent to travel to the more prosperous Ivory Coast

Question 25

conflict and persecution have led to an…

Answer 25

increased number of refugees.

definite time scale as usually lasts for the length of a conflict

Question 26

how many refugees are there worldwide and how has this changed?

Answer 26

increased from 15.7 mill in 2012 to 19.5 mill in 2014

Question 27

where is the biggest source and biggest host of refugees?

Answer 27

• syria (source)
• Turkey (host)
• turkey is central europe so refugees dont have to travel over sea

Question 28

what % of refugees live in the global south?

Answer 28

87%

Question 29

what is an asylum seeker and how many applications for asylum were submitted in 2014?

Answer 29

• a person who seeks entry to another country by claiming to be a refugee
• those judged to not be a refugee can be sent back to their home country
• in 2014, 1.66 mill

Question 30

give a brief overview of the conflict in Syria and the impact this has had on intra-regional migration

Answer 30

• major factor in the recent increase in refugees
• civil war began in March 2011 has led to 7.6 mill IDPs and 4.7 mill international refugees
• high % of refugees have moved short distances to countries that share a border:
  
  • Turkey 1.9 mill
  • lebanon 1.5 mill
• tented camps near turkish border towns, intention to return to their neighbourhood and farmlands as soon as border crossing is reopened

Question 31

what determines the host country refugees from Syria end up in?

Answer 31

• wealth of refugees
• government policy
• effects of conflict, including personal safety, loss of homes, access to services, damage to other infrastructure including communications
• political persecution, discrimination and violation of human rights
• economic hardship including forced labour and modern slavery
• impacts of natural hazards

Question 32

why has conflict and persecution increased the complexity of global migration?

Answer 32

• the number of new conflicts is increasing, leading to a more complex pattern of refugees and asylum seekers across the world.
• in the last few years, this has included the movement of Muslims fleeing from persecution, by the Buddhist Authorities in Myanmar, to Bangladesh
• villages have been burned, many have been killed and over 500,000 have fled to Rakhine State where the sheer number moving, in such a short space of time, have made it complex for the authorities and aid agencies to manage

Question 33

how has the ongoing conflict in syria led to a particularly complex pattern of migration?

Answer 33

• although many have moved to neighbouring countries, others have sought asylum in Europe so there are multiple destinations
• the journeys to Europe have been complex as migrants have chosen not to stay in their first point of entry, e.g. Greece, but have elected to move on through southern Europe to Germany.
• opposition to their movement by countries such as Hungary has led to complexities at border crossings.
• the addition of illegal economic migrants, from N Africa and the Middle East, to the mix only increases the complexity as governments have to determine who are genuine asylum seekers (and should be given the right to safety) and who are not

Question 34

summarise Pakistan’s emigration policy

Answer 34

Pakistan:
- lower middle income country
- pop 196.1 mill (45% under 20)
- GDP/head of $4376

• govt is pro emigration. there are 7 mill Pakistanis working abroad. 2013, migrant remittances amounted to $11.5 bill (5th largest) which is important to socio-economic development of country (this has been recognised formally)
• aims to promote emigration and safeguard migrants include:
  > ratification of UN Conventions regarding rights of workers and protection of basic human rights
  > promotion of the export of Pakistani man power abroad
  > positive steps to encourage female participation in overseas employment (currently 0.12%)
  > support for social networks and associations abroad (Pakistani diaspora)
  > establishment of training institutions to help Pakistani youth in preparation for working abroad
  > enhancement of the impact of economic remittances and skills of returning migrants for development

Question 35

summarise Canada’s Immigration policy below

Answer 35

Canada:
- total pop 35.1 mill
- high income country
- 2013 GDP per capita of $44,843, GDP growth rate of 2.5% and a HDI 0.902

• new policy is aimed at long term requirements for engineers, IT specialists and healthcare workers
• potential migrants are ranked on a 1200 point system which enables young, highly skilled immigrants to be fast tracked
• every effort is made to employ a canadian citizen first, but half the necessary points can be awarded to migrant applicants with a permanent job offer from an employer
• applicants in 20s recieve maximum points for age and graduates are also favoured
• canada has agreed to take 10,000 Syrian refugees over a 3 year period from 2015 (short term)

Question 36

do the ACs or LIDCs have more power and control when it comes to migration policies?

Answer 36

ACs are able to change policies more and are better equipped

Question 37

what is the development of distinct corridors of bilateral flows?

Answer 37

• there are some routes along which migration is more marked than others.
• these are bilateral corridors (migrant flow between 2 countries) and many of these are between southern countries, usually intra-regional (short distance)

Question 38

give 8 reasons that key bi-lateral migrant flows develop (economic, social and political)

Answer 38

1. cost of travel which may be related to proximity
2. ease of access and communication between the 2 countries
3. efficiency and the cost of sending remittances
4. employment opportunities and wage differentials
5. established diaspora communities and networks
6. effects of conflict and persecution
7. migration policy including accession to economic unions and policy on refugees
8. former colonial influence e.g. language