2.a. The geography of gender inequality is complex and contested. Flashcards

Question

In 2021, an estimated how many individuals in the Arab States region were living in modern slavery? (Modern slavery in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States: Case Study)

Answer 1

1.7 million.

Answer 2

Forced labour. This accounts for just over half of people living in modern slavery (52%).

Answer 3

Saudi Arabia.

Answer 4

A system used to monitor migrant laborers, working primarily in the construction and domestic sectors in Gulf Cooperation Council member states

Answer 5

No, the kafala system in certain countries has increased the risk of labour exploitation for migrant workers in the region.

Answer 6

Forced and child marriages. Trafficking. Exploitation of displaced families.

Answer 7

Yazidi men and women abducted by ISIS in 2014 remain missing, with reports of some still being enslaved in various locations.

Answer 8

Data collection gaps and limitations in conflict-ridden countries. E.g. child soldier recruitment and organ trafficking, may not be fully captured.

Answer 9

Conflict is a significant driver of vulnerability in the Arab States, with heightened risks of modern slavery in Iraq, Syria, and Yemen due to conflict. Oman and the UAE, experiencing comparatively low conflict levels, show less vulnerability.

Answer 10

Discrimination against minority groups, political instability, and lack of political rights contribute to vulnerability.

Answer 11

COVID-19 has exacerbated risks, leading to increased wage theft, detention, confinement, and unemployment, particularly affecting migrant workers in GCC countries. During the pandemic, women and girls in the region faced heavier domestic work burdens and increased risk of gender-based violence.

Answer 12

Gender inequality is a large issue, with all Arab States (except the UAE) ranking poorly in the World Economic Forum’s 2021 Global Gender Gap Index.

Answer 13

The erosion of state protection in conflict-affected countries increases the risk of conflict-related sexual violence and slavery.

Answer 14

Climate change effects, such as severe drought in Syria and desertification in Jordan, contribute to extreme water stress across most Arab States. Climate change exacerbates push factors for modern slavery, including poverty, and loss of livelihoods. Climate change effects, such as severe drought in Syria and desertification in Jordan, contribute to extreme water stress across most Arab States. Climate-related resource scarcity can trigger conflict and recruitment into armed groups, compounding vulnerability to modern slavery.

Answer 15

Natural disasters in Yemen and disruptions to food imports worsen the humanitarian crisis.

Answer 16

Threatened livelihoods may lead to negative coping mechanisms like forced and child marriage, and irregular migration, heightening trafficking risks.

Answer 17

The greater a countries HDI, the greater its GGGI. ACs have better gender equality than LIDCs. Scandinavian countries have the highest GGGI. However, there are exceptions such as Uganda (LIDC) which has a low HDI but a GGGI that is much greater. Compared to Italy (AC), Uganda has 0.010 GGGI, but 0.355 lower HDI.

Answer 18

Spearman's rank.

Answer 19

There have been great improvements in protecting and promoting human rights in the 21st Century, but women and girls continue to experience harmful, gender based discrimination and exploitation. This is particularly true in LIDCs.

Answer 20

Western Europe.

Answer 21

Middle East and North America.

Answer 22

You can invest money into healthcare and hospitals, whereas political empowerment is a long-term social change - changing and breaking down social norms and barriers. You cannot invest money into political positions (so is therefore much harder to implement change).

Answer 23

Free all men, women, and children from the abject and de-humanizing conditions of extreme poverty.

Answer 24

Easy to invest money into - increasing resources. Primary levels of education does not require thorough teaching. However, primary education stopping post-13yrs - may inflict forced marriages. Instead, education should continue further beyond, (e.g. tertiary education).

Answer 25

Can help to create equal political contributions. This would then increase importance of government decisions, as a wider population understand would be achieved.

Answer 26

Easy to invest money into - increasing resources. Sanitation is a social and economic issue, so the input of resources is only half of the issue. For example, traditional birthing methods may reject improvements of maternal health due to social barriers.

Answer 27

International treaties. Recommendations. Declarations.

Answer 28

The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). Strengthening the rule of law and reinforce norms to outlaw gender discrimination.

Answer 29

The International Centre for Research on Women (ICRW).

Answer 30

Ethnic differences and overcoming social norms - western strategies may be threatening to e.g. African communities. International treaties - governments can sign them, but they do not have to enforce them. NGOs don’t have much power - limited funding (good for rural communities), but cannot create widespread change.

Answer 31

Forced marriage, often involving children. Access to education and health care. Violence against women. Trafficking into forced labour including sex slavery. Employment opportunities and political participation. Wage equality for similar work to men. Access to reproductive health and services.

Answer 32

Educational opportunities. Access to reproductive health services. Employment opportunities.

Answer 33

For example, Germany has just above 14 years of school attendance on average (male), whereas Yemen has just over 4 years on average (male). Brazil is the anomaly, as it is the only country on the graph that has a greater average female years of school attendance than males.

Answer 34

Poorer countries, in particular in rural areas and among the rural poor. The obstacles to female secondary school participation are greatest in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.

Answer 35

Household obligations often fall on the eldest girl when the family burden of work increases because of male emigration. In patriarchal systems, female education may only be of benefit to the family into which into which a daughter marries and not to her own family. Negative classroom environments in which girls face violence, exploitation and corporal punishment. The impact of girls being exploited for child labour. The prevalence of child marriage. Early pregnancy.

Answer 36

Costs may prohibit all the children in a family from continuing in secondary education; it is usually the girls that suffer. Insufficient numbers of female teachers. Inadequate sanitation in schools which do not offer private or separate latrines.

Answer 37

Insufficient government investment. Inadequate legislation. The differing levels of support for education by different religions. Pressure put on government by TNCs that highlights concerns and sets targets to be achievable.

Answer 38

Female education is the key to empowering women. Important in achieving gender equality in all respects. Helps women to move into the labour market and increase the production capacity of the labour force. Family health and child nutrition can be improved: significant effects on poverty reduction.

Answer 39

The UN has established the Girls' Education Initiative, for which UNICEF is the lead agency. Many NGOs are involved in education partnerships in poorer countries. TNCs are assuming a role in education as part of their Corporate Social Responsibility.

Answer 40

Girls and young women living in poor communities in developing countries are most at risk. Economically and socially disadvantaged women are less likely to gain access to health services, information and education, and less likely to become empowered to negotiate safer sex and decide on the number and spacing of their children. Girls in poor communities face the additional obstacles of early marriage and early child bearing.

Answer 41

STDs including HIV. Harmful traditional practices, especially FGM. Sexual violence.

Answer 42

Early forced marriage. High rates of young pregnancies Forced sterilisation or abortion.

Answer 43

Gender bias in education/ access to education.

Answer 44

Girls who are victims of cultural practices such as female genital mutilation (FGM) which are discriminatory and closely linked to human rights. Education ends, job prospects diminish, they become vulnerable to poverty and exclusion, health suffers and maternal mortality rates in this age category are among the highest.

Answer 45

12% of females were married before the age of 15. 37% before they were 18.

Answer 46

UN estimates of the annual birth rate for 15-19 year old women in Least Developed Countries was 94/1000 live births, and in sub- Saharan Africa, 103/1000. This has a cascading effect on the lives of young women.

Answer 47

The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights; and the 'on the ground' work of NGOs such as ICRW, Amref Health Africa and Womankind, which are working closely with the communities worst affected. Girls Not Brides, a global partnership of more than 1300 civil society organisations, is committed to ending child marriage and enabling girls to fulfil their potential.

Answer 48

An index of employment equality used by the World Bank and the ILO. This is the ratio of females to males within a country's working population (fifteen years and over) that engages in the labour market either by working or actively looking for work.

Answer 49

International Labour Organisation.

Answer 50

Significant global variation in this index. E.g. ratio for Rwanda is 100.82 indicating greater female participation than male, whereas for Iraq it is 17.1 revealing very limited female access to the labour market relative to men. Countries with high HDI such as USA, 82.1, and Japan, 72.9, have high female participation, but none have achieved female-male employment parity. India, 29.8, has a relatively low ratio compared with other rapidly emerging economies.

Answer 51

Social norms, e.g. where primary responsibility in securing household income through employment is attributed to men and where women are expected to devote time to unpaid domestic care. Cultural beliefs and practices of religious or social groups. Gender-based norms that shape the educational and job decisions of women and men. Social acceptance of women as contributors to household income.

Answer 52

Levels of discrimination by employers. Sectoral structure of the labour market.

Answer 53

Levels of governmental and company support for childcare. Degrees to which equal opportunity is safeguarded by law. According to the UN (2019), there are still 18 countries in which husbands can legally prevent their wives from working.

Answer 54

Has one of the world's fastest growing economies and has a rapidly growing population. Population was 1.35 billion. (2020)

Answer 55

US$1609 to US$2044.

Answer 56

US$264 billion to US$324 billion.

Answer 57

The contribution of services to GDP.

Answer 58

112th out of 153 countries.

Answer 59

129th out of 189 countries.

Answer 60

59,445. 35,497 in Maharashtra. 30,394 in West Bengal.

Answer 61

National Crime Records Bureau

Answer 62

Cruelty by their husband or his relatives. Kidnapping and abduction of women. Assault. Rape. Murder with rape/gang rape. Dowry deaths. Buying and selling of girls. Human trafficking. Acid attacks.

Answer 63

1 in 3, (223 million in total).

Answer 64

Uttar Pradesh. 36 million.

Answer 65

28.7% of women experience gender violence in their lifetime. This is underpinned by persistent social norms; deeply entrenched patriarchal and customary practices are perpetuated by their husbands. In 2017, the most prevalent of crimes against women in India were: Cruelty by husband and his relatives (31.9%). Assault on women (27.6%). Kidnapping and abduction of women (22.5%). In addition, police registered 33,658 cases of rape which made up 10.3% of all crimes in India - an average of over 90 per day.

Answer 66

The Global Slavery Index in 2017 estimates 8 million victims, mostly women and girls, for India. This included trafficking for forced labour including sexual exploitation. Bonded labour schemes are still prevalent: E.g. parents have been persuaded to send their daughters to work in the spinning mills of Tamil Nadu with a promise of a lump sum after 3 years which would contribute to dowry costs.

Answer 67

There has been progress towards improving female property and inheritance rights by law, this is important in terms of economic empowerment of women. But in practice women's rights in ownership of land and property are very limited, with inheritance still invariably patriarchal especially in rural communities.

Answer 68

There is gender inequality in the labour market in India. Women have limited access to employment opportunities and are often expected to remain at home, raise children, conduct domestic chores and work in subsistence farming. This is especially true of the rural poor. Even women who have received a full secondary or tertiary education still do not enter the work force, finding it hard not to conform to social norms of marriage and immediate motherhood.

Answer 69

Common practice. Maternity benefits are denied by many employers workplace and most women do not return to work after childbirth. In Delhi only 25% of married women returned to work after childbirth, including those who can afford to pay for childcare. There is social conditioning that it is women's responsibility to bring up their children. Female participation in the workforce is consequently very low; there is still gender inequality in earned income; and although slowly increasing, there are few women in managerial and senior positions; only 13.8% of board members of listed companies are women.

Answer 70

Gender inequality is perpetuated by the lack of women in government at national, provincial and local level. Women have poor representation in India's parliament (only 11.4% of seats held in the upper house, compared with 88.6% held by men). There are few women in ministerial positions.

Answer 71

Even by 2020 there continued to be extreme gender discrimination against women in access to health care. This is closely related to the cultural norms of male dominance in Indian society. Access varies depending on: Reproductive age of the woman. Distance to hospital. Cost of travel. Level of poverty. Number of doctors and medical facilities available. Government spending especially in rural areas.

Answer 72

There has been progress in enrolment of girls in primary education under SDG 4, but there are still many barriers. Transition to, or completion of, secondary education is affected by restrictive factors, especially in poor communities, such as: Family requirements for girls to contribute to housework and agricultural work. Provision of a safe, secure learning environment in schools. Continued prevalence of child marriage.

Answer 73

Women have been subject to murder and disfigurement, mostly by burning, when their family cannot meet the demands for a dowry by the husband. Often marriage is used by the husband to obtain property and other assets from his wife and her family. In 2012 there were 8233 dowry-related deaths in India affecting almost every state, with highest rates in the north and west in Uttar Pradesh and Orissa (between 1 and 1.4 per 100,000 women) and least in the south and east such as in Gujarat, Kamataka and Kerala. The effect is disproportionate on the lower castes and tribes, including Dalit and Adivasi women.

Answer 74

Women can be subject to honour killing by their family members for not agreeing to arranged marriage or for not conforming with other gender norms. Many women are beaten in the domestic home, are subjected to sexual violence and lead a life of servitude and harassment.

Answer 75

Women's health is at risk during and after pregnancy: there is high incidence of maternal mortality and morbidity and this places existing children at further risk. Limited education and poverty especially among the rural poor has adverse effects on maternal and child nutrition and contributes to India's high infant mortality rate (43.2 under age one per 1000 live births, 2014).

Answer 76

Furthermore, in this patriarchal society, women have been subjected to sex- selective abortions in the desire for male offspring, and limited access to the work force further adds to dependency on their husbands added to this, many women have been coerced into sterilisation schemes, sometimes with disastrous consequences.

Answer 77

CEDAW: It has been extremely effective so far - countries that ratified it have worked to implement it and do more. But relies on countries to self-monitor and submit reports on their implementation - they could lie. Collaboration of UNICEF and Indian Governments: Accelerating progress across India for all genders. Changing society's perspective changes - done through health, education, social policies.

Answer 78

The International Convection on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights: Human rights concerning the basic social and economic conditions needed to live a life of dignity and freedom, relating to work and workers' rights, social security, health, education, food, water, housing, healthy environment, and culture. Former president Kovind in 2021 said it gives immense pride to state that India has "consistently upheld human rights". There is no higher calling for a society than the social empowerment of its most marginalised sector by ensuring human rights to them. This noble aspiration has now become a reality through "the government's unwavering commitment", going the extra mile to ensure that the vulnerable are "genuinely empowered," he said.

Answer 79

Effective in preventing many child marriages + imposing fines etc. when they happen, helps victims, and punishes those who promote child marriage. However, age for consent is lower in women than men + they can no longer opt out of marriage younger too.

Answer 80

Aims to prevent the use of dowries + stop dowry-related deaths. But failed in many areas of India + dowries are still used- difficult to ascertain whether 'presents' are in relation to marriage; victims of dowries don't come forward as it is also an offence to give one.

Answer 81

So far 184 325 children have benefitted. Over 33 000 000 women + girls have been supported directly through health programmes. Education leads to equal job opportunities in the formal sector = empowering + can encourage more political participation.

Answer 82

Challenges norms and human rights violations. In bigger cities e.g. Delhi, Jaipur, Kolkata - doesn't help women in rural areas that may need to commute for a job. Gives women confidence + freedom and more opportunities for jobs further away/involving driving. However, only works if women have access to a car but they help poorer women as well e.g. from slums.

Answer 83

Governments can ratify acts and legally enforce them. (E.g. the Dowry act of 2008). Governments may not ratify them, so people may continue to take advantage, but as they are governmental they have the ability to punish for them. Action has the ability to effect the whole country. However, this may result in corruption among the government and the police force. Limited impacts in rural areas.

Answer 84

NGOs are able to work at a grass roots level, supporting women in rural locations. NGOs may not be able to create wide-spread change, so it is only useful on a more confined scale. Avoids political situations, completing work for the most vulnerable in the population; also address the most severe and critical issues. This can bring about significant rural change. People have to be willing to access support, otherwise they cannot function.

Answer 85

Governments are most successful in creating long-term solutions to gender inequality, but NGOs are able to make quick and effective changes that directly benefit communities. Governments concentrate on urban inequality, whereas NGOs focus on rural inequality. Approach is location dependent (e.g. ACs/ LIDCs).