2.4 Research Methods - Interviews

Question 1

What are INTERVIEWS?

Answer 1

Interviews can be face to face or by telephone
Unlike questionnaires, interviews involve social interaction
There are different types of interviews ranging from completely structured to completely unstructured – therefore how free the interviewer is to vary questions and the way they’re asked.

Question 2

What are STRUCTURED/FORMAL INTERVIEWS?

Answer 2

similar to a questionnaire – interviewer has strict instructions. The interview is conducted in the same way each time – same questions, in the same order and same tone of voice. Close-ended and coded questions are used

Question 3

What are SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS?

Answer 3

lie in between the 2 extremes. Eg. Cicourel and Kitsuse (1963) always followed up questions with “How do you mean?” With this approach further questions can be asked if necessary.

Question 4

What are UNSTRUCTURED/INFORMAL INTERVIEWS?

Answer 4

(also called “discovery interviews”) More like a guided conversation. The interviewer has the freedom to vary questions, their wording and order asking follow up questions and probe.

Question 5

What are GROUP INTERVIEWS?

Answer 5

Group interviews: a number of people interviewed together. Paul Willis (1977) used group interviews for his research into the “lads” and schooling. Can also include focus groups to discuss certain topics and record their views. people to bounce their ideas off one another, however, this can also lead to the Hawthorne effect as people observe one another and want to be seen as part of the group and agreeing with the group.

Question 6

PRACTICAL advantages of STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Answer 6

Fairly quick and cheap and can cover quite large numbers of people, however not as many as postal questionnaires.

Training interviewers is straightforward and inexpensive as they simply need to read from a set of questions.

Results are easily quantified because closed ended questions are used with coded answers, meaning hypotheses can be tested.

Question 7

ETHICAL advantages of STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Answer 7

Detachment: The structure of the interview allows for detachment from the interviewee that means they won’t be as impacted by ethical issues such as becoming too close with the participants

Pre-determined set questions: You can decide the wording of the questions and what order to ask in before the interview happens, therefore making there be less risk of asking imposing/ upsetting questions.

Question 8

THEORETICAL advantages of STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Answer 8

Response rate: Fairly quick to carry out, therefore can collect data from a large number of respondents and researchers can generalise.

Although the number targeted tends to be lower than for questionnaires, they generally have higher response rates. This may be because people find it harder to turn down a face-to-face request.YOUNG AND WILLMOTT

Reliability: Data collected is seen to be reliable as all questions are asked in the same way and the same questions are answered so research can be compared and replicated if needed.

Positivist validity: Usually pre-coded, closed questions and answers so data is measurable and quantitative therefore achieving positivist validity where social facts can be achieved.

In a similar way to questionnaires, structured interviews are a good way of testing a hypothesis.

Question 9

STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS: YOUNG AND WILLMOTT

Answer 9

Young and Willmott (1962) approached 987 people in their study and only 54 refused to be interviewed.

Question 10

PRACTICAL disadvantages of STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Answer 10

Inflexible: In a similar way to questionnaires, structured interviews are inflexible as questions have to be drawn up in advance.

As a result of this the findings could lack validity as they don’t reflect the interviewee’s concerns or priorities.

The researcher will be unable to follow any interesting leads which may arise.

In a similar way to questionnaires, structured interviews are only a snapshot at one time.

Cost: Whilst structured interviews are fairly cheap they are still more costly than simply posting/emailing a questionnaire out and they will also need interviewers with good people skills.

Question 11

ETHICAL disadvantages of STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Answer 11

Structured interviews would not be suitable for discussing highly personal or sensitive issues as there is no opportunity to establish a rapport between interviewer and interviewee.
Interviewees may feel as though they have to answer a question, which isn’t the case with questionnaires.

Question 12

THEORETICAL disadvantages of STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Answer 12

Response rate: As with questionnaires, those who choose to participate may be those with more time on their hands, eg, people who are not working, therefore creating unrepresentative data.

Validity: there is little freedom to explain questions/answers further. People can also lie/misunderstand the question, exaggerate or give socially desirable pursue any interesting leads which could affect the validity of the research.

Question 13

FEMINIST criticism of STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS: Graham

Answer 13

Graham (1983) argues structured interviews are patriarchal and give a distorted view of women’s experiences.
This is because the researcher (not the female interviewee) is in control of the situation and decides the line of questioning to be followed.
This mirrors women’s subordination in wider society.
Graham argues sociologists should use methods which allow the researcher to understand women’s behaviour, attitudes and meanings, therefore she advocates the use of observation.
Other Feminists favour unstructured interviews as they allow the researcher to build a more equal and collaborative relationship with the interviewee.

Question 14

PRACTICAL advantages of UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Answer 14

Flexibility: Unstructured interviews are highly flexible therefore data produced is more valid. There is more opportunity to probe deeper into areas of interest and explore new, unfamiliar topics. Unstructured interviews allow the researcher to develop new ideas and hypotheses as they arise.

Exploring unfamiliar topics: With structured interviews researchers need some knowledge of the subject they are studying to develop their hypotheses. For this reason, unstructured interviews can be more useful where the interviewer is not sure of the subject at the start of the research process as they’re open ended and exploratory. Some sociologists use unstructured interviews as a starting point to develop initial ideas.

Question 15

ETHICAL advantages of UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Answer 15

Rapport and sensitivity: The interviewer can develop a rapport with the interviewee, put them at ease and encourage them to open up.

DOBASH AND DOBASH

LABOV

Question 16

UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS: Dobash and Dobash

Answer 16

Dobash and Dobash used unstructured interviews to research domestic violence and found they built a rapport with the interviewees, who felt comfortable discussing personal issues in the unstructured interviews.

Question 17

UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS: Labov

Answer 17

Labov (1973) initially used formal interviews to study the language of black American children and found they appeared to be tongue tied and “linguistically deprived”. However when he adopted a more relaxed, informal style the children opened up.

Question 18

THEORETICAL advantages of UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Answer 18

The interviewers views: As there are no set questions the interviewee has more opportunity to speak about things they feel are important. By allowing interviewee’s greater freedom to express their views, unstructured interviews are more likely to produce fresh insights and valid data.

Checking understanding: In structured interviews there is the danger interviewees will misunderstand the question, or the interviewer could misunderstand the answer.

Unstructured interviews allow the interviewer and interviewee to check meanings. Eg. if the interviewee doesn’t understand a question it can be explained, alternatively if the interviewer is unsure what an answer means they can use follow up questions to check meaning.

Flexible: Unstructured interviews are highly flexible therefore data produced is more valid. There is more opportunity to probe deeper into areas of interest and explore new, unfamiliar topics.

Question 19

PRACTICAL disadvantages of UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Answer 19

Time and cost: Unstructured interviews take significantly longer to carry out (sometimes several hours for each) therefore not as many participants can be interviewed and the interviewer will have a relatively small sample size.

Training: Interviewees need more training for unstructured interviews which can add to overall cost. Interviewees would need to have a background in sociology to realise what information is important and so they can probe further where necessary.

Interpersonal skills: Interviewers will also need good interpersonal skills so they can establish a rapport with the interviewee.

Question 20

ETHICAL disadvantages of UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Answer 20

Harm: can ask distressing/intrusive questions and although it allows for an interviewer to follow up and check in on the participant there may still be issues, this is because they do not follow set questions, giving chance for more sensitive issues to arise.

Interpersonal relationships: sometimes a researcher can become too friendly with the participant that may cross a professional boundary, especially if they feel they are being let into person parts of a participants lives.

Question 21

THEORETICAL disadvantages of UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

Answer 21

Representativeness: Due to the small number of participants used unstructured interviews will not be representative of what the wider population thinks, therefore generalisations cannot be made.

Reliability: Unstructured interviews cannot be reliable because they are not standardised. Differences between respondents can reflect differences in interview, rather than real differences between participants.

Due to the nature of unstructured interviews, it is impossible to replicate them and therefore comparisons cannot be made.

Quantification: Structured interviews mainly use open ended questions, therefore the answers cannot be pre-coded. This can make it difficult to quantify the data, therefore unstructured interviews are less likely to be able to uncover cause and effect relationships that positivists prefer.

Validity: Whilst generally unstructured interviews produce valid data, critics argue interaction between the interviewer and interviewee can distort the information obtained.

Question 22

PRACTICAL advantages of GROUP INTERVIEWS

Answer 22

A good way of getting initial ideas to be looked into later.
Combine questioning with the opportunity to observe group dynamics.

Question 23

ETHICAL advantages of GROUP INTERVIEWS

Answer 23

Feel more comfortable amongst peers so more likely to open up.

Question 24

THEORETICAL advantages of GROUP INTERVIEWS

Answer 24

Throw ideas around the group stimulating other’s ideas producing more valid data.

Question 25

PRACTICAL disadvantages of GROUP INTERVIEWS

Answer 25

One or two individuals could dominate the discussion, preventing others from voicing their opinion.
Much depends on the researcher’s ability to keep the group focussed (need skilled researcher)
Data recorded can be difficult to analyse.

Question 26

ETHICAL disadvantages of GROUP INTERVIEWS

Answer 26

If there are groups of people, some may feel like they can not open up in front of others, may fear they’ll be judged if it is a conversation around sensitive issues.

Question 27

THEORETICAL disadvantages of GROUP INTERVIEWS

Answer 27

Peer group pressure to conform to norms could affect validity.

Question 28

INTERVIEWS: PROBLEMS DUE TO SOCIAL INTERACTION: Interviewer Bias

Answer 28

Interviewer bias: the interviewer decides the questions and may ask “leading” questions which influence how the respondent answers. Interviewees could also be influenced unintentionally based on the interviewer’s age, ethnicity, tone of voice, facial expressions and the way they dress. Interviewer bias can also occur when the interviewer identifies to closely with the interviewees
OAKLEY

Question 29

INTERVIEWER BIAS: Oakley

Answer 29

Oakley (1982): when researching motherhood (as a mother herself), she found it difficult to remain detached when interviewing.

Question 30

INTERVIEWS: PROBLEMS DUE TO SOCIAL INTERACTION: Artificiality

Answer 30

Artificiality: Even the most relaxed and informal interview is still an interview, and not an everyday conversation, therefore the interviewee may not act in the way they usually would. This is known as “The Hawthorne Effect” – the idea people change the way they act when they’re being studied. This could particularly play a part in group interviews.

Question 31

INTERVIEWS: PROBLEMS DUE TO SOCIAL INTERACTION: Status/Power Inequalities

Answer 31

Status and power inequalities: inequalities between interviewer and interviewee can affect interviewee’s honesty/willingness to answer, therefore affecting the validity of the data.
RICH

Question 32

INTERVIEWS: STATUS AND POWER INEQUALITIES: Rich

Answer 32

Rich (1968) found when adults interview children a child’s need to please the interviewer will affect their responses.
In a similar way, gender and ethnic inequalities between
interviewer and interviewee can influence the results.

Question 33

INTERVIEWS: PROBLEMS DUE TO SOCIAL INTERACTION: Cultural Differences

Answer 33

Cultural differences: these can also effect validity. Can lead to misunderstandings as different meanings being given to the same word. For example, “wicked”, “bad”, “wasted” have different meanings to different people. Different topics may also mean different things in different cultures, eg. Mental illness carries less stigma amongst Peurto Ricans therefore they are more likely to admit to symptoms of mental illness.

Question 34

INTERVIEWS: PROBLEMS DUE TO SOCIAL INTERACTION: Social Desirability

Answer 34

interviewees try to win approval, are on their best
behaviour and try to give respectable answers. For example, if asked “When did
you lose your virginity?”

Question 35

INTERVIEWS: PROBLEMS DUE TO SOCIAL INTERACTION: Ethical Issues

Answer 35

Ethical issues: As the interview is a social interaction the interviewee may feel
under pressure to answer questions. Researchers should may sure they gain consent, guarantee anonymity and make it clear they have a right not to answer questions if they wish.

Question 36

TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE VALIDITY

Answer 36

1. Ask fast paced questions to prevent interviewees from making up answers or lying. Kinsey (1953) used this technique when interviewing on sexual behaviour giving interviewees little time to think about their answers.
2. Matching characteristics between interviewer and interviewee,
   (ethnicity/gender/language). For example interviewing women on domestic
   abuse would be better done with a female interviewee.
3. Playing “dumb” to the interviewee.
   Becker (1971) employed this method with his research on school teachers as a way of
   extracting sensitive information, which otherwise
   they may not have revealed about how they classified pupils in terms of their social class and
   ethnicity.