1.5 Education - Social Policy

Question 1

THE TRIPARTITE SYSTEM

Answer 1

1944 EDUCATION ACT

From 1944 education was influenced by the idea of meritocracy. Children were assessed using the 11+ exam and allocated to one of 3 schools…

Grammar schools: For those who passed the 11+, an academic curriculum, allowing access to non-manual jobs and higher education. These pupils were mainly middle class.
Secondary modern schools:
For those who failed the 11+, a non-academic, “practical” curriculum, allowing access to manual work. These pupils were mainly working class.
Technical schools: Only existed in a few areas, very few ever built. In reality it was more a bipartite system, rather than tripartite.

Reproduced class inequality by sending the two social classes to different schools which offered different opportunities. It also reproduced gender inequality as girls needed to gain a higher mark on the 11+ to gain entry to a grammar school.

The system also legitimised inequality through the ideology ability is inborn, assuming ability can be measured early on in life through the 11+.

Question 2

THE COMPREHENSIVE SYSTEM

Answer 2

1965.

Aimed to overcome the class divide by abolishing the 11+ and grammar schools, replacing them with comprehensive schools that all pupils in one area would attend = more meritocratic.

Question 3

THE COMPREHENSIVE SYSTEM: Marxist View

Answer 3

Marxist view: Comprehensives reproduce class inequality through streaming and labelling.
As pupils are no longer selected at age of 11 this offers a “myth of meritocracy”, legitimising class inequality by making the system appear fair.

Question 4

THE COMPREHENSIVE SYSTEM: Functionalist View

Answer 4

Functionalist view: Comprehensives promote social integration between the classes.

However, Ford (1969) found in reality there was little integration because of streaming.

More meritocratic, no longer selects most able pupils at age of 11.

Question 5

POLICY: SELECTIVE SCHOOLING: TYPES OF SELECTION

Answer 5

Types of selection:

• Selection by ability – academic ability, based on intelligence test at age 11. Is now forbidden at all state funded schools (except grammars). Private schools commonly still use this.

• Selection by aptitude – potential in certain subjects. Specialist schools can take 10% of pupils based on aptitude in certain subjects (although many do not choose to do this.)

• Selection by faith – select proportion of students based on religion/religion of parents.

Question 6

POLICY: SELECTIVE SCHOOLING: COVERT: Tough and Brooks

Answer 6

Tough and Brooks (2007) identified ‘covert selection’ – use of backdoor social selection, cherry-picking those they think will be the high achievers.

Eg. Discouraging parents from poorer economic backgrounds from applying by giving impression school is better suited to middle class pupils.

Question 7

POLICY: SELECTIVE SCHOOLING BY ABILITY: AO3

Answer 7

A03 – Issues with selection by ability

• Late developers not able to move
schools
• Social cohesion and social integration
• Labelling and SFP
• Gains provided for some students (eg
grammar schools) cancelled out by number of students disadvantaged in secondary moderns.

Question 8

1979-1997 CONSERVATIVE: THE NEW VOCATIONALISM

Answer 8

Aimed to deal with youth unemployment as the government felt education wasn’t adequate preparation for work. The Conservatives introduced apprenticeships and training schemes focusing on students gaining NVQs. The new vocationalism is favoured by Functionalists and New Right linking to their views on the role of education (addressed in Topic 6).

It is important to note in recent years apprenticeships have now been given a higher status by employers and there are now more opportunities to gain higher qualifications eg. Degree apprenticeships.

Question 9

1979-1997 CONSERVATIVE: THE NEW VOCATIONALISM: AO3

Answer 9

AO3:
Problems with the new vocationalism:
• Cheap labour for employers 4
• A way of reducing politically embarrassing unemployment
stats
• Lower ability students were encouraged into vocational
education, working class and ethnic minorities over-
represented.
• Stereotypical gender patterns
Cohen (1984) argued vocational education aimed to instill good attitudes and work discipline meaning people accepted their low paid, low skilled jobs.

Question 10

1988 EDUCATION REFORM ACT: CONSERVATIVE: MARKETISATION

Answer 10

Marketisation has become a central theme of social policy since the 1988 Education Reform Act (ERA) introduced by the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher. From 1997 Labour government followed similar policies and this was taken even further by the coalition government from 2010, pushing academies and introducing free schools.

Marketisation has created an “education market” by:
• Reducing state control over education
• Increasing competition between schools and
increasing parental choice
• Aimed to raise standards

Question 11

What is MARKETISATION?

Answer 11

Marketisation refers to the process of introducing market forces of consumer choice and competition between suppliers into areas run by the state, such as education.

Question 12

1988 EDUCATION REFORM ACT: CONSERVATIVE: MARKETISATION: WHO LIKES IT?

Answer 12

Neo-Liberal and the New Right favour marketisation as schools have to attract customers (parents) by competing with one another. Schools that provide customers with what they want (exam success) will strive, and those that don’t will “go out of business”.

Question 13

1988 EDUCATION REFORM ACT: CONSERVATIVE: MARKETISATION POLICIES

Answer 13

Policies promoting marketisation include:
• Publication of league tables and Ofsted reports allowing parents to choose the right school
• Business sponsorship of schools
• Open enrolment (more successful schools can recruit more pupils)
• Funding formula (schools receive the same amount of funding for each pupil)
• Schools can opt out of local authority control (eg. academies)
• Introduction of tuition fees for university
• Allowing parents and others to set up free schools.
• Specialist schools, allowing parents more choice eg. IT, language
• National curriculum – ensures all students had high quality education
• Target setting in schools
• Choice for schools to opt out of local authority control giving more independence.

Question 14

1988 EDUCATION REFORM ACT: CONSERVATIVE: PARENTOCRACY: David

Answer 14

David (1993) describes marketised education as ‘parentocracy’ – meaning ‘rule by parents’.
Supporters of marketisation argue in an education market the power shifts from producers (teachers and schools) to consumers (parents). They claim this encourages diversity, gives parents more choice and raises standards.

Question 15

1988 EDUCATION REFORM ACT: CONSERVATIVE: AO3: Bartlett

Answer 15

The reproduction of inequality Despite the claimed benefits of marketisation critics argue it has increased inequalities

League tables and cream-skimming:

Publishing exam results ensures schools with good results are in high demand by parents. Bartlett (1993) claims this encourages:
• Cream skimming – “Good” schools can be more selection and choose high achieving, mainly middle class pupils.
• Silt-shifting – “Good” schools can avoid taking less able pupils who are likely to get low results.
The opposite applies for schools in poor league table positions – they cannot afford to be selective and have to take less-able, mainly working class pupils.

Question 16

1988 EDUCATION REFORM ACT: CONSERVATIVE: AO3: Funding Formula

Answer 16

The funding formula
Schools are allocated funds based on how many pupils they attract. Popular schools get more funds so can afford better qualified teachers and better facilities. Their popularity allows them to be more selective and attract more able, mainly middle class pupils.
Unpopular schools loose income so cannot match teacher skills or facilities of more successful schools.
Popular schools with good results and middle class pupils thrive, whilst unpopular schools fail to attract pupils and funding is reduced further.

Question 17

1988 EDUCATION REFORM ACT: CONSERVATIVE: AO3: Gewirtz

Answer 17

Not only do marketisation policies create inequalities between schools, they also benefit middle class parents as their economic and cultural capital puts them in a better position to choose a “good” school.
Gewirtz (1995) found differences in parent’s economic and cultural capital lead to class differences in how far they exercised their choice of secondary school. She found 3 types of parents:

• Privileged-skilled choosers: Professional, middle class parents who used their cultural and economic capital to gain educational capital for their children. Cultural capital - work the school admissions policies, had time to visit schools and skills to research the options available. Economic capital - could afford to move their children around the system to get the best deal (eg. pay extra travel costs).

• Disconnected-local choosers: Working class parents, restricted by their lack of economic and cultural capital. They found admissions policies hard to understand, were less confident in dealing with schools, less aware of choices available and were not aware of how to manipulate the system. Distance and cost were major restrictions on their choice, and often the nearest school was the only realistic option.

• Semi-skilled choosers: : Mainly working class, but unlike the disconnected-local choosers they were ambitious for their children. However they lacked the economic and cultural capital and relied heavily on other’s opinions, leaving them frustrated at their inability to get their children into the schools they wanted.

Question 18

1988 EDUCATION REFORM ACT: CONSERVATIVE: MYTH OF PARENTOCRACY: Ball

Answer 18

Not only does marketisation reproduce inequality, it also legitimises it by justifying its existence.
Ball (1994) argues it gives the appearance of “parentocracy”, making it appear that all parents have free choice of school. However Ball claims parentocracy is a myth.

As Gewirtz shows middle class parents can take advantage of the opportunities available to them. For example Leech and Campos show that middle class parents can afford to move into the catchment area of more desirable schools.
By disguising the fact schooling continues to reproduce class inequality makes it seem fair and inevitable.

Question 19

1997 - 2010 NEW LABOUR: POLICIES

Answer 19

Whilst marketisation policies have tended to increase inequalities New Labour government (1997-2010) introduced a number of policies aimed to reduce it. These included:

• Designating deprived areas as Education Action Zones and providing with additional resources/funding.
• Aim Higher programme to raise aspirations of groups underrepresented in higher education.
• Education Maintenance Allowances (EMAs) - payments to students from low income backgrounds to encourage them to stay on in education after 16.
• Introduced National Literacy Strategy, literacy and numeracy hours and reduced primary class sizes. These were seen to benefit disadvantaged groups the most.
• City academies were introduced to give a fresh start to struggling inner city schools. Academies were independent and funded by central gov. Often could secure sponsorships from private businesses.
• Increased funding for state education.
• Sure Start centers - education and support services in
disadvantaged areas to tackle cultural deprivation

• They particularly paid attention to groups in society who were seen to be disadvantaged e.g. lower social classes and ethnic minority groups

Question 20

1997 - 2010 NEW LABOUR: AO3: Benn

Answer 20

Critics of New Labour, such as Benn (2012) see a contradiction between Labour’s policies to reduce inequality and its’ commitment to marketization. For example despite introducing EMA encouraging working class pupils to stay on in education, they also introduced tuition fees for higher education that may deter them from going to university. This is known as the NEW LABOUR PARADOX

Question 21

2010 - 2015 COALITION GOVERNMENT

Answer 21

One change the coalition introduced was to reform the curriculum with the national curriculum being rewritten and made more demanding. This saw changes to GCSEs and A-Levels (no longer coursework or modular exams).
The Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government (2010-2015) has been influenced heavily by neoliberal and New Right ideas about reducing the role of the state in education and moving away from schools run by local authority. This has been done through marketisation and privatisation.

Question 22

2010 - 2015 COALITION GOVERNMENT: ACADEMIES

Answer 22

Academies
From 2010 all schools were encouraged to leave local authority control and become academies. Funding was taken from local authority budgets and given directly to schools from central government. Academies were also given control over their own curriculum. By 2012 over half of all secondary schools had converted to academies.
Whereas Labour’s original city academies targeted disadvantaged schools, the Coalition gov. removed the focus on removing inequality by allowing any school to become an academy.

Question 23

2010 - 2015 COALITION GOVERNMENT: FREE SCHOOLS

Answer 23

Free schools are set up and run by parents, teachers, faith organisations or businesses rather than the local authority and are funded directly by the state. They are seen to raise standards by giving power to parents and meeting local demand.
BUT: Allen (2012) found research from Sweden, where 20% of schools are free schools, show they only benefit children from highly educated families.
Evidence from DoE (2012) also shows free schools take fewer disadvantaged pupils than nearby schools.

Question 24

2010 - 2015 COALITION GOVERNMENT: AO3: Ball

Answer 24

Ball (2011) argues promoting academies and free schools has led to:
• Fragmentation of the education system – system is being replaced by a patchwork of diverse provision, much of it involving private providers, that leads to greater inequality in opportunities.
• Centralisation of control – Central gov. alone has the power to allow or require schools to become academies or allow free schools to be set up. These schools are funded by central gov. and reduce the role of elected local authorities in education.

Question 25

2010 - 2015 COALITION GOVERNMENT: POLICIES REDUCING INEQUALITY

Answer 25

Whilst many of their policies appear to have increased inequality, they also introduced policies aiming to reduce inequality (as New Labour did):
• Free school meals – for all pupils in reception, year 1 and year 2
• The Pupil Premium – money schools receive for each pupil from a disadvantaged
background, encouraged better schools to aim to recruit less advantaged students.
BUT: Ofsted (2012) found in many cases Pupil Premium was not spent on those it was supposed to help.
Furthermore “austerity” policy has cut spending in many areas of education – closing Sure Start centre, abolishing EMA and increasing university fees to £9000 per year.

Question 26

2015+ CONSERVATIVES: POLICIES

Answer 26

Policy Introductions:
- Austerity and funding cuts for schools of, on average, 8%
- Continuing the rapid academisation of Local Educational Authority schools
- Increasing the number of grammar schools
- Pushing students to study The English Baccalaureate (EBacc) subjects by making it a measure of the success of a school
- Introducing T-Level qualifications and beginning to phase out BTEC qualifications
- Grading system at GCSE shifted to a 1-9 system
- Progress 8 was introduced in 2016 as a measure of school’s performance based on the average progress a student makes compared to those with similar starting points across the UK
- The content of A-Levels and GCSE’s made more academically demanding

Question 27

What is PRIVATISATION?

Answer 27

Privatisation involves the transfer of public assets, such as schools, to private companies. In recent years there has been a trend towards privatisation, in the UK and globally.

Academies and free schools were encouraged to work in partnership with employers and other sponsors to improve education. Sponsors (eg employers/businesses) would have a say in how the school was run and the curriculum offered – therefore they reflect an element of privatisation in education.

Question 28

2015+ CONSERVATIVES: ENDOGENOUS PRIVATISATION: Ball and Youdell

Answer 28

Endogenous privatisation involves privatisation from within the education system. It’s possible due to schools opting out of the LEA control and being able to manage themselves. Each school is different, and therefore it was seen as best to adapt budgets and contracts accordingly, without LEA input.
Schools with endogenous privatisation operate more like private businesses. Some practices they adopt include:
- Efficiency and Profit e.g. sponsored activities from local businesses
- Performance Targets e.g. teachers being paid more based on performance
- Marketing – Gerwitz argues schools spend more time on marketing than they do students

Question 29

2015+ CONSERVATIVES: EXOGENOUS PRIVATISATION: Ball and Youdell

Answer 29

Exogenous Privatisation – Ball & Youdell
Exogenous privatisation refers to privatisation from the outside. Aspects of the education system are outsourced to external providers and companies. There’s a great market for outside providers to profit from the education system. Examples include:
- Global, private exam boards
- Classroom tools e.g. Google Classroom, Adobe, Apple, Microsoft Office
- Academies and academy trusts – these run a number of schools and include private donors and investors

Question 30

2015+ CONSERVATIVES: EXAMPLES OF PRIVATISATION:

Answer 30

As a result of privatisation education becomes a source for capitalist profit – Ball (2011) calls this the “education services industry” (ESI).
Private companies in the ESI are involved in an increasing range of activities – building schools, providing supply teachers, work-based learning, careers advice, Ofsted inspections etc.
Large-scale school building projects often involve public-private partnerships (PPPs) in which private sector companies provide the money to design, build, finance and operate educational services. Companies that build schools are given contracts for repayment and service the building for 25-35 years, with schools paying the ongoing costs. Ball (2007) argues companies involved can expect to make 10x as much profit as they do on other contracts.

Question 31

2015+ CONSERVATIVES: BLUR OF PUBLIC/PRIVATE BOUNDARY: Pollack

Answer 31

Many senior officials involved in education now leave to set up or work for private sector education businesses. These companies bid for contracts to provide services for schools.
Pollack (2004) claims companies buy “insider knowledge” to help win contracts and side step local authority democracy.

Question 32

2015+ CONSERVATIVES: COLA-ISATION OF SCHOOLS: Molnar

Answer 32

The private sector is also penetrating schools indirectly, eg. vending machines in schools, and the development of brand loyalty. According to Molnar (2005) schools are targeted by private companies because schools legitimise the product.
Benefits to schools from cola-isation are limited eg. Ball found a Cadbury sport equipment promotion was scrapped after it was revealed pupils would have to eat 5,400 chocolate bars for a set of volleyball posts

Question 33

2015+ CONSERVATIVES: EDUCATION AS A COMMODITY: Ball, Hall

Answer 33

concludes that privatisation is becoming the key factor shaping educational policy. Policy is moving educational services out of the public sector to be provided by private companies instead. Education is becoming a “legitimate object of profit making” - a commodity to be bought and sold in an education market
Similarly, Marxist Hall (2011) sees academies as an example of the handing over of public services to the private capitalists. Marxists argue the neoliberal claim privatisation drives up standards is a myth

Question 34

2015+ CONSERVATIVES: GLOBALISATION OF POLICY

Answer 34

Many companies in the ESI are foreign owned, eg. Edexcel is owned by USA company Pearson, and Ball (2007) claims some Pearson GCSE paper are marked in Sydney and Iowa.
Furthermore, many contracts for educational services in the UK are sold on, and in a globalised world, often bought by overseas companies.
Private companies are exporting UK education policy overseas (eg. Ofsted type inspections) and providing this service in other countries. As a result nation states are becoming less important in policy making which is shifting to a global level.

Question 35

What is GLOBALISATION?

Answer 35

Globalisation: the way in which the world is becoming increasingly interconnected as a result of increased technology, travel, transportation, trade and communication.

Question 36

2015+ CONSERVATIVES: IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION

Answer 36

Globalisation has impacted education in other ways:
5) Increased migration has led to more ethnically diverse classrooms meaning multi-cultural approaches have had to occur
6) Greater flow of ideas around the world countries influenced by other countries
7) Demand for a more skilled workforce to compete on a global scale
8) Focus on teaching young people that they are part of a global community
Universities now have to run as global businesses aiming to attract students from across the world (they now often set up branches overseas). Overseas students are desirable to universities as they pay higher tuition fees.

Question 37

POLICY: IMPACT ON ETHNICITY

Answer 37

Assimilation Policies: 60s and 70s: focused on assimilating ethnic minority pupils into mainstream British culture to try and raise their achievement e.g. help with english
BUT: some ethnic minority groups already speak english- real cause is poverty/racism

Multicultural Education: 80s and 90s: aimed to promote achievement of EM groups valuing all cultures in schools curriculum to raise self-esteem
BUT- some claim MCE is tokenism (picking out stereotypical features of EM culture to include in the curriculum but doesn’t tackle institutional racism) New Right believe education should promote a shared national identity and EM should be assimilated.

Social inclusive and raise achievement: late 90s: detailed monitoring of exam results by ethnicity, amended Race Relations Act to promote racial equality. Saturday Schools in the black community, English as an Additional Language programmes.
BUT- Gillborn argues institutionally racist policies in relation to the ethnocentric curriculum, assessment and streaming continue to disadvantage EM pupils.

Question 38

POLICY: IMPACT ON GENDER

Answer 38

In the 19th century girls were largely excluded from higher education. More recently under the tripartite system girls had to achieve a higher grade in the 11+ to gain entry to a grammar school.
Since the 1970s policies such as GIST have been introduced to try and reduce gender differences in subject choice.