2.1.1 Beliefs in society: Theories of religion

Question 1

What is religion?

What does Aldridge (2013) argue about scientology.

Answer 1

• Aldridge argues that scientology is a religion due to its followers defining it as one.
• However, many governments have attmepted to ban scientology, declaring it a dangerous cult.

Question 2

What is religion?

What is the constructivist approach to religion?

Answer 2

• Mainly interested in what religion means to individuals and how they define religion themselves.
• Argue that its impossible to create a single, universal definition of religion.

Question 3

What is religion?

Evaluation of the functional definition of religion.

(3+, 1-)

Answer 3

• An advantage is that its inclusive of a wide range of beliefs and practices.
• Does not specify belief in a God or supernatural.
• Not accused of a Western bias.
• However, just because something is an institution that integrates people into groups, doesn’t mean its a religion - e.g football.

Question 4

What is religion?

How does Yinger (functional) define religion?

Answer 4

Identifies the function that religion performs for individuals, such as answering ‘ultimate questions’ about the meaning of life and life after death.

Question 5

What is religion?

How does Durkheim define religion?

Answer 5

Defines religion in terms of the contribution it makes to social integration.

Question 6

What is religion?

What is a functional definition of religion?

Answer 6

Defines religion in terms of what it does for the society it exists in, rather than specific beliefs.

Question 7

What is religion?

What are the criticisms of the substantive viewpoint of religion?

Answer 7

• Leaves no room for beliefs and practices that don’t involve belief in God.
• Accused of having a Western bias as they exclude religions such as Buddhism which don’t have the Western idea of a God.

Question 8

What is religion?

What is a substantive definition?

Answer 8

• Focus on substance of religious beliefs
• Focus on belief in God or the supernatural

Question 9

What is religion?

How does Weber (substantive) define religion?

Answer 9

Defines religion as belief in a superior or supernatural power that is above nature and cannot be defined scientifically.

Question 10

Functionalist theories of religion

What did Malinowski identify about religious rituals?

Answer 10

• Malinowski studied the religious practices of the Trobriand islanders.
• He found that when they were fishing in safe waters, they did not practice religious ceremonies.
• He found that when fishing in dangerous waters, they did.
• Concluded that religion performs psychological functions of preserving the stability of society in uncertain and stressful situations e.g death

Question 11

Functionalist theories of religion

What functions does Parsons argue religion serves?(3)

Answer 11

• Value consensus - religion directly socialises people into shared values.
• Religion answers ultimate questions - suffering, meaning of life, death, hardships.
• Gives meaning to a ‘meaningless existence’

Question 12

Functionalist theories of religion

What does Bellah argue about civil religion? (1967)

Answer 12

• In modern, secular states, people worship society, without the supernatural element.
• E.g Americanism - which is religiously diverse, but people come together around America itself.
  * Religious symbols - Flag, national anthem, historical figures
• UK - royal family
• Performs same functions Durkheim identified - social cohesion, order, stability, preventing radical change.

Question 13

Functionalist theories of religion

How does Durkheim argue that society divides objects and activities?

Answer 13

• Durkheim argues that society splits objects into the sacred and the profane.
• Sacred - holy, special, set apart. E.g bible, worship
• Profane - ordinary, everyday. E.g watching TV, kettle

Question 13

Functionalist theories of religion

What are Durkheim’s four key functions of religion, from his study of ‘primitive religion’?

Answer 13

1. Discipline - Religious rituals and beliefs impose self discipline, which encourages individuals to behave sociably.
2. Cohesion - Social cohesion - worship brings the community together to reinforce and reaffirm bonds.
3. Vitalising - maintains tradition, ensuring that values are passed down.
4. Euphoric - Religion serves to remind people of their place in something bigger, to reduce individuals becoming antisocial.

Question 14

Marxist theories of religion

What are some evaluations of the marxists view on religion?

(3)

Answer 14

• Ignores positive phsycological functions of religion
• Religion doesn’t have the power to be an opium to the masses, media influences people now more than religion does.
• Many religious teachings contradict the views of capitalism. E.g criticise greed.

Question 15

Marxist theories of religion

What does Marx describe religion as?

Answer 15

• Opium to the masses.
• Cushions workers from the true misery of being exploited.

Question 16

Marxist theories of religion

How does Marx see religion as a product of alienation and what is alienation?

Answer 16

• Alienation is losing control of something you have created or produced.
• Marx argues that alienation is extreme under capitalism as workers to not own what they produce and therefore have no control.
• This forces them to turn to religion for consolation - “opium of the masses”.

Question 17

Marxist theories of religion

What is Lenin’s description of religion?

Answer 17

Describes religion as a ‘spiritual gin’ which intoxicates the masses to keep them in their place and confuse them to prevent revolution

Question 17

Marxist theories of religion

How is the Hindu Caste system an example of religion justifying social inequalities?

Answer 17

• The Hindu Caste system is social stratification based on ascribed status.
• You are born into each Caste and marriage between castes is forbidden.
• The rules of Karma teaches that if you behave in your caste, you will be reincarnated into a higher one.
• Attempting to change castes is forbidden.
• Maintain inequality.

Question 18

Marxist theories of religion

What is a false consciousness, and how is this created through religion?

Answer 18

• False consciousness - a distorted view of reality which stops the poor from revolting.
• Religion makes people believe their suffering and poverty is virtuous.

Question 19

Marxist theories of religion

What is Marx’s description of religion being an ‘ideological weapon’?

Answer 19

• Religion operates as an ideological weapon used by the ruling class to justify the suffering of the poor.
• It misleads the poor into believing their suffering is God given and they will be favoured in the afterlife.

Question 20

Marxist theories of religion

What does Marx say religion does?

Answer 20

Distorts people’s view of reality in ways that serve the interest of the ruling class.

Question 21

Feminist theories of religion

CofE senior position statistic

Answer 21

• 2018 - 25% of those in senior positions were women
• 2019 - 27% of those in senior positions were women

Question 22

Feminist theories of religion

What are Piety movements and what did Rinaldo find about them?

Answer 22

• Piety movements are conservative movements that support traditional teachings about women’s roles and dress.
• Found that middle class, urban women were most likely to join these groups.

Question 23

Feminist theories of religion

What did Brusco find in Columbia?

Answer 23

• The women found belonging to a pentacostal group was empowering despite the strong belief in traditional gender roles.
• Found they used religion to increase their power and influence. E.g the pentacostal belief that men should respect women.

Question 24

Feminist theories of religion

What does Gillet-Ray argue that British Muslims do to liberate themselves?

Answer 24

• Argues that British Muslims wear veils and hijabis as a form of liberation.
• They choose to wear a hijab and use it to gain parental approval and aid them in education and employment.

Question 25

Feminist theories of religion

What does El Saadawi argue about the relationship between patriarchy in society and patriarchy in religion?

Answer 25

Believed that patrarchy in society influenced and reshaped religion as men reinterpreted beliefs in a way that favoured patriarchy.

Question 26

Feminist theories of religion

How are religious laws and customs patriarchal?

(2)

Answer 26

• Often give women fewer rights. E.g restricted access to divorce, contraceptions, abortions, dress, control over decision making…
• Many religions encourage women’s domestic, traditional role.

Question 27

Feminist theories of religion

How are sacred texts patriarchal?

(2)

Answer 27

• Largely feature male gods, male prophets, and are usually written and interpretted by men.
• Stories often reflect anti-women stereotypes. E.g Eve being the temptress and causing humanities fall in the Bible.

Question 28

Feminist theories of religion

How are places of worship patriarchal?

(3)

Answer 28

• Often segregate the sexes and marginalise women.
  * E.g seating women behind screens.
• Womens participation may also be restricted.
  * E.g not being able to preach or read from sacred texts.
• Taboos around menstration, pregnancy and childbirth
  * e.g in Islam, menstrating women are not allowed to physically touch the Qur’an.

Question 29

Feminist theories of religion

How do religious organisations show evidence for patriarchy?

Answer 29

• Religious organisations are male dominated.
• E.g In Judaism and Catholicism, women are forbidden from becoming priests.

Question 30

Feminist theories of religion

What does Armstrong believe about women within religion?

(2)

Answer 30

• Armstrong believes that the exclusion of women from priesthood in Judaism and Catholicism is evidence of women’s marginalisation.
• Armstrong also argues that early religions often placed women at the centre. E.g Mother Earth and Greek Goddesses. And therefore, the rise of monotheism around 4000 years ago increased patriarchy within religion.

Question 31

Feminist theories of religion

What do some feminists believe the function of religion is?

Answer 31

To transmit patriarchal ideology that legitimates female subordination