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2.1 (cell structure) Flashcards

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1
Q

structure of the cell surface membrane diagram

A
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2
Q

all cells are surrounded by a cell surface membrane which controls the

A

exchange of materials between the internal cell environment and the external environment

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3
Q

the membrane is described as being

A

partially permeable

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4
Q

the cell membrane is formed from a

A
  • phospholipid bilayer of phospholipids
  • spanning a diameter of around 10 nm
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5
Q

cell wall diagram

A
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6
Q

cell walls are formed outside of the cell membrane and offer

A

structural support to cell

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7
Q

structural support is provided by the what in plants

A

polysaccharide cellulose

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8
Q

structural support is provided by the what in most bacterial cells

A

peptidoglycan

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9
Q

narrow threads of cytoplasm (surrounded by a cell/plasma membrane) called what connect the cytoplasm of neighbouring plant cells

A

plasmodesmata

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10
Q

nucleus diagram

A
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11
Q

the nucleus of a cell contains chromatin (a complex of DNA and histone proteins) which is the

A

genetic material of the cell

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12
Q

the nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane which is also called the

A

nuclear envelope

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13
Q

the nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane (the nuclear envelope) which has

A

many pores

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14
Q

nuclear pores are important channels for allowing

A
  • mRNA and ribosomes to travel out of the nucleus
  • as well as allowing enzymes (eg. DNA polymerases) and signalling molecules to travel in
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15
Q

nuclear pores are important channels for allowing what to travel out of the nucleus

A
  • mRNA
  • and ribosomes
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16
Q

nuclear pores are important channels for allowing to travel in

A
  • enzymes (eg. DNA polymerases)
  • and signalling molecules
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17
Q

the nucleus contains

A

chromatin (the material from which chromosomes are made)

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18
Q

the nucleus contains chromatin which is the material from which

A

chromosomes are made

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19
Q

chromosomes are made of sections of

A
  • linear DNA
  • tightly wound around proteins called histones
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20
Q

chromosomes are made of sections of linear DNA tightly wound around proteins called

A

histones

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21
Q

the nucleolus is the site of

A

ribosome production

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22
Q

darkly stained regions can be observed which are individually termed

A
  • nucleolus
  • plural: nucleoli
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23
Q

mitochondria diagram

A
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24
Q

a mitochondrion inner membrane has protein complexes vital for the later stages of

A

aerobic respiration embedded within it

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25
Q

mitochondria are the site of

A

aerobic respiration within eukaryotic cells

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26
Q

mitochondria are surrounded by a double-membrane with the inner membrane folded to form

A

cristae

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27
Q

the matrix formed by the cristae contains

A

enzymes

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28
Q

the matrix formed by the cristae contains enzymes needed for

A
  • aerobic respiration
  • producing ATP
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29
Q

small circular pieces of DNA (mitochondrial DNA) and ribosomes are also found in the

A

matrix

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30
Q

small circular pieces of DNA (mitochondrial DNA) and ribosomes are also found in the matrix, needed for

A

replication

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31
Q

chloroplast diagram

A
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32
Q

as well as mitochondria, chloroplasts are also surrounded by a

A

double-membrane

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33
Q

membrane-bound compartments called thylakoids containing chlorophyll stack to form structures called

A

grana

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34
Q

membrane-bound compartments called what, containing chlorophyll stack to form structures called grana

A

thylakoids

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35
Q

grana are joined together by

A
  • lamellae
  • thin and flat thylakoid membranes
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36
Q

chloroplasts are the site of

A

photosynthesis

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37
Q

the light-dependent stage takes place in the

A

thylakoids

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38
Q

the light-independent stage (Calvin Cycle) takes place in the

A

stroma

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39
Q

chloroplasts also contain small circular pieces of DNA and ribosomes used to synthesise proteins needed in chloroplast replication and

A

photosynthesis

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40
Q

ribosome diagram

A
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41
Q

ribosomes are formed in the nucleolus and are composed of almost equal amounts of

A

RNA and protein

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42
Q

ribosomes are found freely in the cytoplasm of all cells or as part of the

A

rough endoplasmic reticulum in eukaryotic cells

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43
Q

each ribosome is a complex of

A
  • ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
  • and proteins
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44
Q

80S ribosomes (composed of 60S and 40S subunits) are found in

A

eukaryotic cells

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45
Q

70S ribosomes (composed of 50S and 30S subunits) are found in

A

prokaryotes, mitochondria and chloroplasts

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46
Q

ribosomes are the site of

A

translation (protein synthesis)

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47
Q

endoplasmic reticulum diagram

A
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48
Q

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) surface covered in

A

ribosomes

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49
Q

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) formed from continuous folds of

A
  • membrane
  • continuous with the nuclear envelope
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50
Q

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
processes

A

proteins made by the ribosomes

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51
Q

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) involved in the production, processing and storage of

A

lipids, carbohydrates and steroids

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52
Q

Golgi apparatus (golgi complex) diagram

A
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53
Q

golgi apparatus is flattened sacs of

A
  • membrane
  • similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
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54
Q

golgi apparatus modifies

A

proteins and lipids

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55
Q

golgi apparatus modifies proteins and lipids before packaging them into

A

golgi vesicles

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56
Q

the vesicles then transport the

A
  • proteins and lipids
  • to their required destination
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57
Q

proteins that go through the Golgi apparatus are usually

A
  • exported (e.g. hormones such as insulin)
  • put into lysosomes (such as hydrolytic enzymes)
  • or delivered to membrane-bound organelles
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58
Q

large permanent vacuole diagram

A
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59
Q

large permanent vacuole is a sac in plant cells surrounded by the

A
  • tonoplast
  • is a selectively permeable membrane
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60
Q

vacuoles in animal cells are not

A

permanent, and small

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61
Q

vesicle diagram

A
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62
Q

a vesicle is a

A

membrane-bound sac for transport and storage

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63
Q

lysosome diagram

A
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64
Q

a lysosome is a specialist form of vesicles which contains

A
  • hydrolytic enzymes
  • (enzymes that break biological molecules down)
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65
Q

lysosomes break down waste materials such as worn-out organelles, used extensively by cells of the

A

immune system

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66
Q

lysosomes break down waste materials such as worn-out organelles, used extensively by cells of the immune system and in

A

apoptosis (programmed cell death)

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67
Q

centriole diagram

A
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68
Q

centrioles are hollow fibres made of

A

microtubules

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69
Q

centrioles are hollow fibres made of microtubules, two centrioles at right angles to each other form a

A

centrosome

70
Q

hollow fibres made of microtubules, two centrioles at right angles to each other form a centrosome, which

A

organises the spindle fibres during cell division

71
Q

centrioles are not found in

A

flowering plants and fungi

72
Q

microtubules diagram

A
73
Q

microtubule makes up the cytoskeleton of the cell about

A

25 nm in diameter

74
Q

microtubule made of α and β tubulin combined to form

A

dimers

75
Q

microtubule made of α and β tubulin combined to form dimers, the dimers are then joined into

A

protofilaments

76
Q

how many protofilaments in a cylinder make a microtubule

A

13

77
Q

microtubule makes up the cytoskeleton of the cell which is used to provide

A

support and movement of the cell

78
Q

microvilli diagram

A
79
Q

microvilli are cell membrane projections that

A

increase the surface area for absorption

80
Q

cilia diagram

A
81
Q

cilia are hair-like projections made from

A

microtubules

82
Q

cilia allows

A

the movement of substances over the cell surface

83
Q

flagella diagram

A
84
Q

flagella has similar in structure to cilia, made of longer

A

microtubules

85
Q

flagella contract to provide cell movement for example in

A

sperm cells

86
Q

in complex multicellular organisms, eukaryotic cells become

A

specialised for specific functions

87
Q

these specialised eukaryotic cells have

A

specific adaptations to help them carry out their functions

88
Q

for example, the structure of a cell is adapted to help it carry out its

A

function

89
Q

structural adaptations include

A
  • the shape of the cell
  • the organelles the cell contains
90
Q

structural adaptions examples include

A
  • red blood cells are biconcave and do not contain a nucleus, this makes more space inside the cell so that they can transport as much oxygen as possible
  • cells that make large amounts of proteins will be adapted for this function by containing many ribosomes (the organelle responsible for protein production)
91
Q

cells that make large amounts of proteins will be adapted for this function by containing

A

many ribosomes (the organelle responsible for protein production)

92
Q

neurones (nerve cells) diagram

A
93
Q

nerve cells (neurones) have a characteristically elongated structure which allows them to

A

coordinate information from the brain and spinal cord with the rest of the body

94
Q

neurone function

A

conduction of impulses

95
Q

an adaption of a neurone is that it has a cell body where

A
  • most of the cellular structures are located
  • and most protein synthesis occurs
96
Q

an adaption of a neurone is that it has extensions of the cytoplasm from the cell body which form

A
  • dendrites (which receive signals)
  • and axons (which transmit signals)
97
Q

extensions of the cytoplasm from the cell body form dendrites (which receive signals) and axons (which transmit signals), allowing the neurone to

A

communicate with other nerve cells, muscles and glands

98
Q

an adaption of a neurone is that the axon (the main extension of cytoplasm away from the cell body) is covered with a

A
  • fatty sheath
  • which speeds up nerve impulses
  • axons can be up to 1m long in some animals and can therefore enable fast communication over long distances
99
Q

skeletal muscle cell diagram

A
100
Q

muscle cells contain layers of fibres that allow them to

A

contract

101
Q

an adpation of muscle cells is that there are three different types of muscle in animals

A

skeletal, smooth and cardiac (heart)

102
Q

an adpation of muscle cells is that all muscle cells have layers of

A
  • protein filaments (fibres) in them
  • these layers can slide over each other
  • causing muscle contraction
103
Q

an adpation of muscle cells is that they have a high density of

A
  • mitochondria
  • to provide sufficient energy (via respiration) for muscle contraction
104
Q

an adpation of muscle cells is that skeletal muscle cells fuse together during development to form

A

multinucleated cells that contract in unison

105
Q

sperm cells diagram

A
106
Q

sperm cell function

A
  • reproduction, to fuse with an egg
  • initiate the development of an embryo
  • and pass on fathers genes
107
Q

a sperm cell adaptations is that the head contains a

A
  • nucleus
  • that contains half the normal number of chromosomes
  • (haploid, no chromosome pairs
108
Q

a sperm cell adaptations is that the acrosome in the head contains

A
  • digestive enzymes
  • that can break down the outer layer of an egg cell
  • so that the haploid nucleus can enter to fuse with the egg’s nucleus
109
Q

a sperm cell adaptations is that
the mid-piece is packed with

A
  • mitochondria
  • to release energy (via respiration) for the tail movement
110
Q

a sperm cell adaptations is that the tail rotates

A
  • propelling the sperm cell forwards
  • and allowing it to move towards the egg
111
Q

root hair cell diagram

A
112
Q

root hair cell function

A

absorption of water and mineral ions from soil

113
Q

a root hair cell adaption is that is has root hair to

A

increase surface area (SA) so the rate of water uptake by osmosis is greater (can absorb more water and ions than if SA were lower)

114
Q

a root hair cell adaption is that is has thinner walls than other plant cells so that

A

water can move through easily (due to shorter diffusion distance)

115
Q

a root hair cell adaption is that is has a permanent vacuole contains

A

cell sap which is more concentrated than soil water, maintaining a water potential gradient

116
Q

a root hair cell adaption is that is has mitochondria for

A

active transport of mineral ions

117
Q

xylem vessel cell diagram

A
118
Q

xylem cells lose their top and bottom walls to form

A

a continuous tube through which water moves from the roots to the leaves

119
Q

xylem vessel cells function

A

transport tissue for water and dissolved ions

120
Q

an adaption of a xylem vessel cell is that it has no top and bottom walls between cells to

A

form continuous hollow tubes through which water is drawn upwards towards the leaves by transpiration

121
Q

an adaption of a xylem vessel cell is that it has dead cells without organelles or cytoplasm, to allow

A

free movement of water

122
Q

an adaption of a xylem vessel cell is that it has outer walls which are thickened with a substance called

A
  • lignin
  • strengthening the tubes
  • which helps support the plant
123
Q

phloem vessel cell diagram

A
124
Q

phloem vessel cell function

A

transport of dissolved sugars and amino acids

125
Q

a phloem vessel cell adaption is that it is made of living cells which are supported by

A

companion cells

126
Q

a phloem vessel cell adaption is that cells are joined end-to-end and contain

A
  • holes in the end cell walls (sieve plates)
  • forming tubes which allow sugars and amino acids to flow easily through (by translocation)
127
Q

a phloem vessel cell adaption is that cells also have very few

A

subcellular structures to aid the flow of materials

128
Q

epithelial cells in the small intestine are specialised to

A

absorb food efficiently

129
Q

red blood cells are specialised to

A

transport oxygen

130
Q

in multicellular organisms, specialised cells of the same type group together to form

A

tissues

131
Q

a tissue is

A

a group of cells that work together to perform a particular function

132
Q

epithelial cells group together to form

A

epithelial tissue (the function of which, in the small intestine, is to absorb food)

133
Q

muscle cells (another type of specialised cell) group together to form

A

muscle tissue (the function of which is to contract in order to move parts of the body)

134
Q

different tissues work together to form

A

organs

135
Q

different organs work together to form

A

organ systems

136
Q

animal and plant cells are types of eukaryotic cells, whereas bacteria are a type of

A

prokaryote

137
Q

prokaryotic cells differ from eukaryotic cells in having a cytoplasm that

A

lacks membrane-bound organelles

138
Q

prokaryotic cells differ from eukaryotic cells as their ribosomes are

A

structurally smaller (70 S) in comparison to those found in eukaryotic cells (80 S)

139
Q

prokaryotic cells differ from eukaryotic cells as they have no nucleus, instead they have

A
  • a single circular DNA molecule that is free in the cytoplasm
  • and is not associated with proteins
140
Q

prokaryotic cells differ from eukaryotic cells as they have

A

a cell wall that contains murein (a glycoprotein)

141
Q

some prokaryotic cells have plasmids which are

A

small loops of DNA that are separate from the main circular DNA molecule

142
Q

plasmids contain genes that can be

A

passed between prokaryotes (e.g. genes for antibiotic resistance)

143
Q

some prokaryotes (e.g. bacteria) are surrounded by a final outer layer known as a

A

capsule (slime capsule)

144
Q

a bacteria capsule helps to

A
  • protect bacteria from drying out
  • and from attack by cells of the immune system of the host organism
145
Q

some prokayotes also have long, tail-like structure that rotate, enabling the prokaryote to move called a

A

flagellum

146
Q

structures always present in prokayotics (5)

A
  • cell wall
  • cell surface membrane
  • cytoplasm
  • circular DNA
  • ribosomes
147
Q

structures sometimes present in prokayotics

A
  • flagellum (motion)
  • capsule (protection)
  • infolding of cell surface membrane (may allow photosynthesis or carry out nitrogen fixation)
  • plasmid (small circle of DNA)
  • pili (for attatchment to other cells or surfaces, involved in sexual reproduction)
148
Q

infolding of cell surface membrane in some prokaryotic cells does what

A
  • may allow photosynthesis
  • or carry out nitrogen fixation
149
Q

the pili of some prokaryotic cells does what

A
  • is for attatchment to other cells or surfaces
  • involved in sexual reproduction
150
Q

structures sometimes and always present in prokaryotic cells diagram

A
151
Q

in prokaryotes their genetic material is not packaged within a

A
  • membrane-bound nucleus
  • and is usually circular
  • (eukaryotic genetic material is packaged as linear chromosomes)
152
Q

prokaryotes lack what type of
organelles

A

membrane-bound

153
Q

prokaryotes are smaller than

A

eukaryotic cells

154
Q

prokaryote ribosomes are structurally smaller

A

(70 S) in comparison to those found in eukaryotic cells (80 S)

155
Q

genome of a prokaryotic cell

A
  • DNA circular
  • with no proteins
  • in the cytoplasm
156
Q

genome of a eukaryotic cell

A
  • DNA is associated with histones (proteins)
  • formed into chromosmes
157
Q

cell division of prokaryotes

A
  • occurs by binary fission
  • no spindle involved
158
Q

cell division of eukayotes

A
  • occurs by mitosis or meiosis
  • involves a spindle to seperate chromosomes
159
Q

prokaryotic ribosomes are

A

70S

160
Q

eukaryotic ribosomes are

A

80S

161
Q

cell walls of a prokaryote is made of

A
  • peptidoglycan (polysaccharide and amino acids)
  • and murein
162
Q

cell walls of a eukaryote is made of

A
  • plants: cellulose or lignin
  • fungi: chitin (similar to cellulose but contains nitrogen)
163
Q

Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells Comparison Table

A
164
Q

viruses are

A
  • non-cellular
  • infectious particles
  • that straddle the boundary between ‘living’ and ‘non-living’
165
Q

virusesare relatively simple in structure, much smaller than

A

prokaryotic cells

166
Q

structurally viruses have a nucleic acid core, their genomes are either

A
  • DNA or RNA
  • and can be single or double-stranded
167
Q

structurally viruses have a protein coat called a

A

capsid

168
Q

some viruses have an outer layer called an

A

envelope

169
Q

some viruses have an outer layer called an envelope formed usually from the

A

membrane-phospholipids of a cell they were made in

170
Q

all viruses are parasitic in that they can only reproduce by

A
  • infecting living cells
  • and using their protein-building machinery (ribosomes) to produce new viral particles
171
Q

virus diagram

A

as biology (sme) (8 decks)

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