20 a Day (9) Flashcards
- What is the recommended method for preparing whetstones before sharpening?
- Why?
- Submerging them in water for at least 45 minutes
- This allows the pores in the stone to fill with water, preventing the knife from catching against the surface.
Why is it important to constantly moisten the stone while sharpening?
To prevent the knife from catching against the surface
What is the grit size of the coarse stone recommended for sharpening?
800 - a coarse stone is used first before moving to a finer stone.
What grit size should be used after the coarse stone for sharpening?
2,000 - this fine stone is used for the second half of the sharpening process.
What is the benefit of higher-levelled grit stones in sharpening?
They provide sharper, finer edges by removing less material
How many studies has data from iNaturalist bioblitzes been used in since 2020?
Fifty different studies (wow!)
- What do most bioblitzes gather biological records for?
- What does this help to track?
Submission to a repository of biodiversity data - this helps in tracking and studying biodiversity.
What percentage of total iNaturalist records did the 377 bioblitzes contribute in 2019?
13% - this reflects the growing significance of bioblitzes in biodiversity recording.
BioBlitzes provide a snapshot of what species are present within a site. Why is this useful?
These snapshots serve as up-to-date data for conservation planning and management
How do bioblitzes compare to traditional biodiversity assessment methods (3 Points)?
- Cheaper
- Quicker
- More suited to small areas
What did Foster and colleagues (2013) find about the efficacy of bioblitzes (Hint: efficacy for detecting certain species)?
Similar efficacy to traditional expert surveys for detecting salamanders, snakes, and small mammals
What limitation did bioblitzes have according to Foster and colleagues (2013) (Hint: froggies)?
Lower detection of anurans and rare and elusive species
Give one reason why some species might not be detected during a bioblitz
Time limitation means non-active species may not be detected (BioBlitzes may only lasy for an hour during the day).
What biases do bioblitzes suffer from (2 Points - one about eyes, another about spreading)?
- Preferences for emotive taxa (e.g., species that catch peoples’ eyes)
- Uneven sampling effort in time and space (one person may spend forever in one place, while others may spread out more).
Why are BioBlitzes good for montoring invasive species?
They help prioritize invasive alien species removal actions by providing recent, accurate, and complete occurrence data.
What is one of the primary goals of many citizen science projects (Hint: public)?
Engagement of the public
What effect do bioblitzes have on iNaturalist usage among participants?
Participants used iNaturalist about half a day more frequently in the week following a bioblitz. This boost lasted for several months.
What role do the Trees & Woodlands Officers play in woodland management?
They advise landowners on appropriate woodland management, restoration, and protection
They collaborate with the Forestry Commission to create management plans.
Why might you want to look at an ancient woodland inventory?
To determine if a proposal will affect ancient woodland or ancient and veteran trees.
How can you access the Woodland Trust’s ancient tree inventory?
By clicking on ‘Tree search’ and entering a postcode.
True or False: Only a small proportion of ancient or veteran trees are recorded on the Woodland Trust’s ancient tree inventory.
True.
Where might data on smaller ancient woodlands be held (small woodlands don’t appear in inventories)?
Local record centres.
What should you do if a site has evidence of ancient woodland and is not listed on the inventory?
Contact Natural England.
Give two mitigation measures for protecting veteran trees from development?
- Screening barriers to protect veteran trees from dust and pollution
- Rerouting footpaths to deflect trampling pressure
What is the buffer zone requirement for ancient or veteran trees (where no development can occur)?
At least 15 times larger than the diameter of the tree trunk
If the tree canopy area is larger than this, the buffer zone should be 5 metres from the canopy edge.
Why is monitoring important in woodland management?
It enables us to see whether we are achieving our aims.
True or False: Management outcomes can always be guaranteed.
False
What sort of management still needs to occur in “minimal intervention” woodlands?
They still need to be monitored for natural changes.
What caution should be taken regarding recording information in woodland management (Hint: time)?
Not to waste time and effort recording more information than is necessary.
Which structural stages of woodland are particularly valuable for wildlife (2 Points)?
- The youngest stages (open and thicket stage)
- And the oldest stages (over mature woodland, veteran trees, and deadwood).
What is associated with the highest number of species in woodlands?
The youngest and oldest structural stages.
True or False: Smaller woods always have opportunities for high diversity.
False
What is often more important than diversity in smaller woods?
The way in which the wood complements others nearby, i.e., the landscape context.
What three historical practices have ancient woods been subjected to?
Thinning, felling, and coppicing
Why is sustaining disturbance regimes in ancient woodlands critical?
To conserve the biodiversity that has developed and survived under such regimes
- What condition are many ancient woodland sites, particularly PAWS, usually in?
- Why?
- Not in as robust condition
- These sites have experienced long interruptions of disturbance cycles and unprecedented levels of shade.
What was unusual about wood production in the 20th century?
Concern was primarily with harvesting the main stem of trees - this contrasts with historical practices that utilized more parts of the tree.
What impact does harvesting wood have in terms of carbon sequestration?
Harvesting can reduce carbon stores, but must be weighed against emissions reductions from using harvested wood.
What is often the best way to enhance and rejuvenate the understorey?
Thinning the overstorey and cutting the understorey.
What should be minimized during any harvesting to protect the understorey?
Damage to stools.
When is clear felling more appropriate?
Where there is a long history of such treatments
What should be avoided when woodland wildlife communities are in a depleted state?
Large scale felling
Why should clear felling be avoided in small, isolated woods?
It prevents any continuity of wooded habitat
What is seldom successful when clear felling is practiced?
Retaining isolated trees
In larger woods over 10ha, what is the guideline for felling?
Only a small proportion (no more than 10%) should be felled in any 5 year period
What is the best solution for important species dependent on woodland canopy?
Continuous cover systems
What is the maximum area that should generally be felled in larger woods within a 5 year period?
10%
In stands that are even-aged, what should be done?
Opportunities should be taken to diversify the age and habitat structure in particular locations.
Fill in the blank: Opportunities to create ‘early stage’ habitats (e.g., open glades and thickets) should be balanced against the need to avoid too much _______.
Rapid change
Why are woodland margins considered valuable (2 Points - Hint: not microclimates, which are also nice)?
- They are valuable for the depth of canopy
- High light conditions that encourage flowering and fruiting of understorey and shrubs.
What type of woodland margin design is preferred?
Wide, diffuse margins and gradual transitions are better than abrupt or ‘hard’ edges.
What is recommended for land adjoining intensively farmed fields next to woodlands?
Buffer the woodland by leaving a headland within the field, such as rough grass or scrub.
Can sweeping management plans be applied to a group of veteran trees?
No - each veteran tree should be treated as an individual case.
When should felling of a veteran tree be considered?
Only on safety grounds and as a last resort (this is if other techniques like crown reduction and pollarding are not feasible).
What can happen when veteran trees are suddenly exposed to wind and sun (2 Points)?
- Lichens and mosses can be damaged
- The risk of windblow is increased
This often occurs during canopy competition reduction in dense stands.
- What is the recommended method for thinning around veteran trees?
- What is this called?
- What tecnique should be avoided?
- It should be selective with progressive, gradual reduction of the surrounding canopy.
- This is called successive halo thinning
- Halo felling (not thinning) should be avoided
This approach is called successive halo thinning.
What is halo felling?
Felling concentric rings around the tree - this method is not recommended for veteran trees.
What is a common phrase used when contemplating veteran tree management?
Every tree is an individual (meaning each veteran tree needs its own management plan).
What is a potential conflict of interest in veteran tree management?
Different advisers may have differing priorities, such as conservation vs. health and safety.
What two things are crucial to inform the management of a veteran tree?
- Historical management practices
- Current conservation goals
Fill in the blank: Different veteran tree management options may be preferred by a nature conservation officer and a _______.
historic landscape adviser.
What is one reason for producing a veteran tree management plan (Hint: long-term)?
To ensure continuity of management over time
What is the purpose of bringing together when making a veteran tree management plan?
To achieve consensus - consensus helps align goals and strategies among stakeholders.
What role does a veteran tree management plan play in attracting resources?
It can be part of a bid for grant aid or be the basis for a legal agreement - funding is often essential for the implementation of management strategies.
What are the two broad types of veteran trees?
Those that have been actively managed and those that have not.
What is the majority type of veteran trees that have been actively managed in the past?
Pollards.
What is the state of documentation regarding pollarding practices?
There are few written documents recording how and when trees were pollarded.
What evidence exists concerning the management of veteran pollards?
Evidence concerning the intervals between cuts (but not much else).
What issue do many veteran pollards in Britain face today?
They are no longer in a regular system of active management and need restoration work.
What is the primary reason for working on a veteran tree?
To prolong its life.
What is the general rule regarding cutting veteran trees?
Do as little as possible in the way of cutting.
What is an exception to the rule of minimal cutting for veteran trees?
Returning a pollard to a regular cycle of cutting.
Should techniques for inducing decay be experimented on veteran trees?
No, they should be experimented on younger trees.
True or False: Cutting veteran trees is encouraged to extend their life.
False (unless it’s a historical pollard).
What should be avoided when managing veteran trees (Hint: temptation)?
The temptation to work on them just to demonstrate management and show quick results.
- What is the branch collar?
- What is it crucial for?
- A ridge of bark where a branch joins the trunk
- The branch collar is crucial for the tree’s recovery after pruning.
Where should cuts be made when pruning a veteran tree?
Just above the branch collar - if the collar isn’t injured, then the tree can recover more easily.
- What is the recommended length of a stub to leave when cutting a veteran tree branch (Hint: you don’t want the tree to rot)?
- What does this help to promote?
- 10 times the diameter of the branch.
- This will help to promote regrowth.
Where are dormant buds more likely to emerge when a tree is damaged?
Where the bark is thinner, away from the base of the branch
This justifies leaving longer stubs in certain situations.
Why shouldn’t veteran trees be mulched?
There is a concern that a thick layer of organic matter may encourage increased growth of roots close to the surface that may then be more susceptible to desiccation in dry periods.
What should be minimized when managing dead veteran trees?
Remedial work to make the tree safe.
What features should be avoided cutting or removing from dead trees?
Cavities.
What should be avoided when clearing younger woodland around dead stumps?
Sudden extensive clearing (to prevent altering light and moisture regimes).
What can dramatically alter the light/moisture regime for organisms in decaying wood?
Sudden extensive clearing of younger woodland.
True or False: Dead trees do not provide any ecological value.
False.
What is the over-riding principle when managing a bunch of veteran trees?
Not to do the same thing to every tree on a site at the same time
What should be considered regarding the amount of work that should be carried out on a tree?
The longer ago that the tree was last worked on, the smaller the amount of tree surgery that should be done at one time
What is retrenchment in trees?
The process where less new photosynthetic material is produced each year due to declining leaf area.
What visible condition do trees exhibit during retrenchment?
Stag-headed trees.
How long can the condition of retrenchment persist in a tree?
For many decades or even centuries.
True or False: Retrenchment means that the tree is about to die.
False.
What is the browse line in trees located in grazed areas?
The browse line is the height at which animals feed on the tree, affecting its growth.
What is one consequence of trees not being able to grow ground-reaching branches because of a browse line?
It prevents layering and may make branches more prone to snapping (as there are no underlying branches to support them).
How do animals using trees for shelter negatively impact them?
It causes trampling around the tree and damage to the roots.
- What effect does animal dung and urine have on nutrient levels around trees?
- Why is this bad?
- Nutrient levels rise, particularly nitrogen levels.
- This may be incredibly mad for mycorrhizal fungi that the trees need to survive.
If livestock occur within an area of conservation importance, what deworming medicines should be avoided at all costs?
Avermectins
What are the typical conditions of land where veteran trees are found?
Not prime grazing or arable land due to poor soil conditions like low nutrients, steep or rocky terrain (AKA Veteran trees often survive in areas unsuitable for crop growth).
What is the allelopathic effect of bracken?
Produces substances that inhibit the growth of other plants.
What fire hazard is associated with bracken-dominated areas?
Deep litter layer or thatch from dried fronds can become a severe fire hazard - fires can even travel under ground in the leaf litter.
What health and safety consideration is associated with bracken?
Bracken spores are carcinogenic.
If you’re going to bruise bracken, when’s the best time to do so and why?
- On a very hot day, especially during July
- The bracken bleeds in the heat, which helps to exhaust it.
What is the estimated reduction in vigour of bracken after rolling/bruising?
At least 50% (brusing may eventually eradicate it).
What negative effects can bracken rolling (where you get a tractor and roll a big thing idk I’m too tired) have on the ecosystem (4 Points)?
- Detrimental to anthills
- Harmful to reptiles
- Affects rare or solitary plants
- Breaks up dead wood.
If all ________________________________________________ are removed from
a woodland, it may be impoverished by the loss of more than ______________________________.
If all fallen branches and slightly decayed trees are removed from
a woodland, it may be impoverished by the loss of more than 20% of its species.
What type of woodland is necessary for rich lichen floras?
Old growth woodland (stands older than 200 years) with veteran trees.
What two conditions are necessary for woodland lichens?
Adequate light and shelter from drying winds.
What is a serious threat to woodland lichens from neighbouring farms?
High nitrogen (ammonia) pollution from intensive farming.
Why are ancient coppices rarely good for lichens?
They are more like young growth woodlands (lichens never get a chance to grow).
What can occur in areas with a few old growth woods?
Local rarities can occur on occasional old trees within young growth woodland.
What distance can prevent many lichen species from recolonizing?
As little as 2.5 km.
- What is the recovery time from clear-felling for most lichen communities?
- Assuming what?
200 - 300 years if there is nearby old growth.
Why can people be bad for mycorrhizal species and the trees they associate themselves with
Excessive trampling by people can harm mycorrhizae
- Should fertilising of old veteran trees be carried out?
- Why not?
- No, it should not be carried out
- Fertilisers (and lime) negatively affect mycorrhizal fungi.
- Even though you shouldn’t mulch around veteran trees, what can removing leaf litter from around them encourage?
- Why?
- Root disease-causing fungal species
- Removing leaf litter suppresses natural competitors of these fungi.
What type of dead wood supports a limited but specialised range of invertebrate species?
Dead wood in the crown
Which two types of rot are especially valuable for invertebrate habitats?
Brown rot and soft white rot
How do saproxylic species enhance habitat heterogeneity?
They create partly decomposed wood, burrows, and cavities. These structures enhance ecosystem complexity.
What type of damage to the bark can be beneficial for invertebrates?
Damage from a lightning strike - it can create new habitats!
Why are broken branch stubs important for invertebrates?
They provide good access for egg laying
What should be done with fallen branches to support invertebrate life?
Left to lie near the tree in partial shade
What percentage of ancient woodland in England and Wales has been felled and converted to plantations since the 1930s?
More than 38 per cent
What percentage of ancient woodland has been cleared for agriculture since the 1930s?
Eight per cent
How many ancient woods exceed 100 hectares in the Ancient Woodland Inventory for England and Wales?
Only 501 ancient woods
How many ancient woods are larger than 300 hectares?
12 ancient woods
- What percentage of ancient woods are less than 20 hectares in size?
- Therefore, what practice is very important?
- More than 80 per cent
- Therefore, the creation of new ancient woodlands and the reversion of PAWS is essential
What is likely about ancient woods less than two hectares in size (Hint: they may not be included in something)?
They may not be included in the ancient woodland inventory
What is the relationship between the size of a wood and the number of species it can support?
A direct relationship!
- What types of human influences can penetrate into the wood?
- How can this be weakened?
- Pesticide spray drift and other types of pollution
- Increasing the sizes ancient woodland patches to create more stable cores can weaken these pressures.
What do many species specific to ancient woodland require (Hint: stability)?
Relative stability of the core of the woodland
Other than overall area, what other factor influences the relative amounts of core area and edge in a woodland?
The shape of the wood (e.g., a patch may have a great amount of area but it may just be very long and thin, so its cores are still subjected to edge effects).
- What effect did thinning have on radial growth in formerly coppiced oak stands?
- What does this emphasise the importance of?
- Thinning improved radial growth and stimulated latewood production, but this effect was temporary.
- This emphasises the importance of maintaining pollarded cycles.
- How long does the positive effect of thinning on oak radial growth last?
- What does increased radial growth provide resistance to?
- Over 20 years.
- This effect reducesthe vulnerability of thinned oak stands to short droughts.
What can reverse the post-thinning growth enhancement in oak trees following thinning?
Intense and prolonged droughts.
What should you observe about a tree before pollarding (2 Points)?
- Look for low vigour indicators like poor crown density or odd leaf colour. Trees with low vigour are unlikely to respond to pollarding.
- Trees with healthy foliage and good inner crown growth should respond best to pollarding.
- When is the best time to cut trees for pollarding?
- Why is one season surprising?
- In summer or winter, not in spring or autumn
- Cutting in summer allows for energy production, which is crucial for tree health.
Is there a prescribed height for pollarding trees?
No, cut according to the form of the tree (but the usual height is 2-3m).
What is the minimum percentage of foliage that should be left on a tree after pollarding?
30% foliage minimum - any less is not okay as the tree won’t be able to photosynthesise properly!
- Where along a branch should you ideally cut if possible when pollarding?
- Why?
- Just above a fork
- This area tends to have thinner stems and smoother bark, increasing the chances of dormant bud growth.
- What should you look for on the bark when pollarding trees?
- Why?
- Nodes, buds, and swellings
- These features indicate where the best growth from dormant buds will come from.
- What type of bark should you aim to cut into when pollarding?
- Why?
- Smooth bark
- Smooth bark facilitates the emergence of dormant buds better than fissured bark.
What is the first cut you should make when pollarding?
Take out the leader
How should you balance the crown after pollarding?
Prune remaining branches for an even shape from all sides
- What should you do with branches up to about 2m on the stem during pollarding?
- Why?
- Prune all branches off the stem
- This discourages lower growth regeneration and promotes growth in the crown.
Should you strictly follow guidelines for pollarding?
No, you can experiment and develop your own methods
Why are storm damaged trees considered superior candidates for pollard creation?
They often have smooth, young growth lower in the crown
What are the peak months for reptile surveying (Hint: there are two months)?
April and May
When might you see juvenile reptiles during surveys?
Late August to late September
What time of day is best for reptile surveying in April and May?
Morning hours (8.30am - 11.00am) and afternoon (4.00pm - 6.30pm)
What weather conditions are unsuitable for reptile surveying?
Rain or wind - bright sunshine is favourable on cooler days.
What is the peak air temperature range for reptile surveying?
9-20°C
What weather sequence is favourable for reptile surveying?
A hot spell after several days of cold weather or showery weather after a prolonged dry period - these conditions can increase reptile activity!
True or False: July and early August are the best months for reptile surveying.
False - these months are generally less useful due to heat (even reptiles can get too hot).
What is the recommended minimum number of visits for surveying reptiles within an area?
Seven visits
When should a reptile survey be conducted if only one visit is possible (what month)?
During May
What techniques should be used during a reptile survey?
Walkabout technique and refugia inspection
How long should each reptile survey session be planned for?
Less than 2 hours
During which months should walkabout and inspection of placed refugia be conducted when surveying reptiles?
March to June (for adults) and August to September (for juveniles)
Which group of reptiles are not likely to be found beneath refugia?
Lizards! (Specifically common lizards and sand lizards).
What have artificial refuges been used for in reptile surveys?
To survey for the presence of reptiles at a given site (but not the abundance!)
How are artificial refuges usually laid out (Two different ways)?
Either randomly or where reptiles are expected to be found
What types of walks have been used to search for reptiles?
Random walks or transect walks
What is a key limitation of using refuges and walks for reptile surveys?
They can only reveal the presence of reptiles, not their absence (e.g., you can’t confirm if a certain species isn’t present at a site just because you didn’t find it).
Why are the results from reptile refuges and walks often biased?
They are often conducted in selected areas where reptiles are known to occur
- What has been a common misuse of the data from refuges and walks?
- When is this problem especially bad?
- To make statements about the absolute and relative abundance of reptiles
- This is problematic when methods are not standardized.
The length of a reptile walk, the time spent searching, and the expertise of the observer are often _______.
Unstructured - this lack of structure affects the reliability of the data.
What is a major problem when clearing open space for ride widening and glade creation (Hint: unwanted vegetation)?
Invasion by unwanted vegetation such as bracken and bramble - these species thrive at the woodland edge and in open conditions.
What will eventually defeat bramble and bracken?
They are only eventually defeated by dense and continuous overhead canopies.
What impact do bracken and bramble have on plant diversity?
They reduce overall plant diversity
What disease can bracken harbor in some parts of Britain?
Lyme disease - it’s transmitted through ticks!
What should be avoided in the scrub and tall herb zones of woodland rides to provide maximum variety to organisms?
Large blocks of even-aged vegetation greater than 50 m in length
How should cut areas be distributed along a ride network?
Cut areas should be evenly spread out, alternating from one side of the ride to the other
How often should the central zone of a ride be mown?
Every year or two.
- What is the minimum width for the central zone in a ride?
- Why?
- 2m
- This width allows access for farm machinery for ride maintenance.
In smaller woods with limited space, how can rides be structured?
Two zones:
* Central area of short turf
* Outer zone of predominantly tall herbs and grasses, with small patches of light scrub
What are the characteristics of wider, three-zone rides compared to smaller two-zone rides?
Wider, three-zone rides are more attractive due to a good scrubby woodland edge
In smaller woods, rides can be reduced to two zones, comprising a central area of _______ and an outer zone of predominantly ____________________________.
- Short turf
- Tall herbs and grasses
What is the key to managing rides and glades for wildlife (e.g., a sort of mantra)?
Maintaining open, sunny conditions and a structurally diverse, shrubby woodland edge.
- How wide should east-west rides be in relation to the height of the trees on the south side?
- Why?
- At least one and a half times wider than the height of the trees.
- This allows sufficient sunlight to reach the central area.
- What is characteristic of the south-facing woodland edge of an east-west ride?
- What group of organisms does it therefore support?
- It will be warm in the summer sunshine.
- This warmth supports basking insects.
- What is the characteristic of the north-facing edge of a ride?
- What is this feature attractive to?
- It will be cooler and damper.
- This aspect is more attractive to feeding insect larvae.
What may be required if an existing ride or glade is not wide enough?
It may be extended slowly over a period of several years.
- What types of organisms do north-south rides provide?
- Why?
- Why is this important?
- They host flora and fauna characteristic of light woodland shade.
- This is becase north-south rides receive less light over the course of a day.
- This makes them important habitats in their own right.
Fill in the blank: The width of a ride can be proportionally less in _______ or younger woodland that has not achieved its full height.
Coppiced woodland - coppiced woodlands have not reached their maximum height and can have narrower rides.
When should glades not be created?
If the woodland is part of a larger block (e.g., it’s just a compartment) with existing open space.
How are glades typically incorporated into the landscape?
They are usually incorporated into the ride network, often at the intersection of two rides (e.g., crossroads).
True or False: Glades can only exist as part of a ride network.
False.
What is one method for creating glades?
Felling one or more corners around a ride intersection.
What is the benefit of woodland rides that meander through a wood?
They are good for wildlife because of the variety of sunny aspects and shelter.
What do straight rides act like (Hint: something that isn’t very good).
They tend to act as a wind tunnel.
What can be done to reduce wind funnelling in existing straight rides (2 Points)?
- Create ‘pinch points’ to baffle the wind
- Angle the start and finish of the ride.
What percentage of direct shade is required by many butterfly species (e.g., along a ride)?
Less than about 20%
This is a general requirement for many butterfly species to thrive.
How does the presence of different tree heights along ride networks impact habitat?
Width and orientation become less important - this diversity can create more suitable habitats for species despite other factors.
- What is often the first priority in woodland management?
- What areas are often targeted?
- Increase ride width to reduce shade levels
- This should target areas with simple structure and dense crops close to the ride.
How can damage to habitats be minimized when widening rides?
By only widening short areas at a time and leaving substantial lengths of original ride edge habitat
- What should be retained when managing woodland rides?
- Give an example
- Groups of locally uncommon trees
- For example, a patch of Aspen may be crucial for moth breeding.
What is the suitable size for scallops?
Approximately 30 to 50m long by 10 to 20m deep (this size is a very rough guide).
- What are the two habitats that scallops can produce?
- What determines which habitat will form?
- Scrub
- Grassland
- The habitat produced depends on the frequency of cutting.
Why do Lepidoptera require bare ground areas (2 Points)?
- To serve as basking sites
- To provide areas for their food plants to germinate
- What is the relationship between regular ground disturbance and certain scarce Lepidoptera?
- Give an example
- Several larval foodplants for scarce Lepidoptera are associated with regular ground disturbance
- An example is Wood Spurge, which supports the Drab Looper moth.
What techniques can create bare ground habitat on a small scale?
Allowing scuffing or scraping by ride-cutting machinery
Small scrapes along roadside banks can be effective.
