20 a Day (7) Flashcards
What is the recommended approach to veteran tree surgery?
Do the minimum amount of surgery necessary on a tree
How can one test the depth of a cavity in a tree?
Use a piece of flexible hose inserted into the hole
Why should rough ends of branches not be tidied up?
The broken ends form egg-laying niches (I presume for invertebrates?)
What should not be applied to stumps or cut/damaged branches of veteran trees?
Sealant, fungicide, or insecticide
Why should ploughing near veteran trees be avoided?
It damages the mycorrhizal fungi as well as the tree
What should be ensured for linear landscape features?
Continuity of linear landscape features such as lines of veteran trees and hedgerows.
Why is the continuity of landscape features (e.g., hedgerows and rows of trees) important for bats and some invertebrates?
They use them as flight paths.
What is the impact of a gap of 10m in a line of trees on bat species?
It can dissuade some bat species from flying along it.
What type of fertilisers are recommended when working near veteran trees (2 Types)?
Farmyard manure or pelleted versions are best
When should fertilisers be applied?
On still days (days with no wind)
How far should fertilisers be applied from veteran trees?
At least 15 times the diameter of the trunk at breast height
What should be avoided when applying fertilisers near veteran trees?
Fertilisers should not splash onto the trunks - splashing fertilisers on the trunks can harm the tree and affect its health.
If dead wood is in short supply, what can you do? (Hint: drill)
Create cavities inside of younger trees
True or False: It is best to try habitat initiation methods on veteran trees.
False - it is recommended to try these methods on younger trees.
What are nest boxes viewed as (Hint: availability)?
A ‘stop gap’ until suitable, natural places are available (e.g., tree cavities)
What should be avoided when putting up nest boxes (Hint: rare)?
Do not put them on part of a tree that’s near a bit that’s used by rare invertebrates - bats or birds may eat them.
Where are epiphytic mosses found more in polluted areas?
On old trees
In what positions do epiphytic mosses mostly occur on trees (remember that an epiphyte is a plant that grows on another plant)?
Low down and in sheltered positions
Which old trees are the most important for mosses (There are four very important ones)?
Oak, ash, field maple, beech
What is noted about elm trees in relation to age?
Few veteran elms survive except in the Scottish Highlands and Islands
- What type of grazing environment benefits mosses on trees?
- Why?
- Grazed wood-pasture
- This environment allows light to reach the trunks of trees while maintaining relatively high humidity.
What advantage do older trees have over younger trees regarding bryophyte growth?
More time for bryophyte growth to accumulate
Why do mosses and other epiphytes really like veteran trees?
Because veteran trees have lots of sheltered crevices and cracks that they can grow in.
Why are horizontal tree branches good places for mosses and other epiphytes to grow?
Due to bird droppings accumulating on the top. This makes the surfaces of horizontal branches rich in nitrogen.
How do mosses at the lip of a rot hole function in a way that benefits biodiversity (3 Points)?
- They act as a wick, allowing rainwater to empty slowly
- This creates a rain track down the trunk for several days
- This helps to support various rare species of moss
What are lichens very susceptible to (2 Moleculey pollutey things)?
Sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxides
Why is the location of trees important in relation to lichen diversity?
Trees close to pollution sources tend to be species poor
Where do trees in deep valleys tend to be better in terms of lichen diversity?
Polluted air passes over the top without penetrating into the valley
What receives more pollution: a lowland area, or an upland area?
An upland area (higher elevations receive more atmospheric pollution)
What has enabled some mobile species of lichen to recolonise in southern England?
Reduced levels of sulphur dioxide
- Which types of lichen have very poor dispersal mechanisms?
- What does this hinder?
- Those typical of veteran trees
- This limits their ability to recolonise areas affected by pollution.
- What type of woodland is essential for rich lichen floras?
- Why?
- Old growth woodland (stands older than 200 years)
- This is because they contian an abundance of veteran trees
- Does it take a long time for rich lichen communities to develop?
- What does this highlight?
- Yes - it can take many years
- This highlights the slow colonization process of lichens.
What are the ideal conditions for woodland lichens (2 Things)?
- Adequate light
- Shelter from drying winds
What type of site is best for woodland lichens?
A mosaic of dense and open areas
Different lichen species have varying tolerances to exposure and light levels.
- What nitrogen levels are woodland lichens adapted to?
- Therefore, what’s a serious threat to lichens?
- Low nitrogen levels
- High nitrogen pollution from intensive farming poses a serious threat to lichens.
Why are ancient coppices rarely good for lichens?
Because the growth inside of them is always too young to support lichen
What is an old-growth woodland?
Any woodland that’s older than 200 years old
What should not be drained or diverted away from old trees (4 Points)?
- Streams
- These may contribute to the overall humidity of the area
- Feel free to divert if failing drainage threatens the tree
- Maintaining high humidities is good for mosses
What is the consequence of blocking past drainage ditches?
It can kill veteran trees by raising long-established water levels
How does light grazing benefit woodland ecosystems (Hint: shading)?
It prevents uniformly shaded conditions.
Why might holly be pollarded?
It supports rare lichen species when not too shaded.
- What should be done with ivy in the early stages of colonization on high epiphytic value trees?
- What else should you note?
- Prevent it from establishing.
- Don’t remove ivy that’s well established as it’s quite valuable to wildlife
In what sort of environment might consideration be given to removing ivy from trees?
In sites of high value for epiphytic plants (e.g., sites that are naturally humid) but low value for other wildlife.
What is the best and most natural method of controlling ivy?
Livestock browsing on the lower trunks of trees.
What are lichens sensitive to?
Light and humidity levels (don’t change them if you love them!)
- What should be done to minimize local climate change when working with lichens?
- Why?
- Clear small areas at a time, as opposed to clearing a few large areas in one go.
- This is because lichens are very sensitive to changes in light and humidity.
What is a recommended grazing level to protect lichens?
Grazing levels must be sufficiently high
High grazing levels can help control the growth of undergrowth that competes with lichens.
True or False: Lichens thrive in heavily shaded areas.
False - lichens require adequate light for growth and can be shaded out by competing vegetation.
- What is the guideline distance for planting new trees near existing veterans?
- Why is this a good distance?
- 15m
- This distance helps to maximize lichen colonisation without shading out the existing veteran.
- How many trees should be planted around a veteran tree?
- In what shape should they be planted?
- Three or four trees
- Planting in a semi-circle around the existing veteran is recommended.
- When planting new trees around a veteran, what side shouldn’t you plant on?
- Why?
- The south side
- This will prevent you from shading out the veteran
What is the purpose of planting new trees close to existing veterans?
To maximize colonisation of epiphytes (e.g., mosses and lichens)
Close proximity encourages beneficial interactions between the trees.
True or False: New trees should be planted very close to existing veterans to ensure they receive epiphytic colonists.
False - new trees should not be planted 15m away to avoid shading the veterans.
What effect does wood ash have on soil acidity?
It has a liming effect, helping to remedy excessively acidic soils (AKA it raises pH/makes soil more alkaline).
Ash from wood fires can help to remedy excessively _______ soils.
acidic
What nutrient/element is wood ash particularly associated with?
Potassium
How does the age of the burnt wood affect potassium levels in wood ash?
Younger wood has a higher potassium content than older wood.
True or False: Older, thicker branches have a higher potassium content than young wood.
False
- When should wood ash be applied directly to bare soil?
- Why (2 Points)?
- In winter.
- Wood ash may contain compounds that can scorch plants.
- When soils are moist, these compounds no longer become harmful.
What should be done after applying wood ash to bare soil?
Rake or dig it in.
- Why is it important to rake or dig in wood ash?
- What else do you need to remember?
- To allow the harmful compounds in the ash to react with moist soil and be rendered harmless.
- Remember that this can only be done in winter.
- Why is it important not to leave wood ash in the rain?
- Therefore, what should you remember to do?
- Because potassium inside of ash is in a soluble form and is easily leached out.
- Spread the ash into moist soil during the winter to prevent it from leaching.
Why does the application of wood ash increase the uptake of nitrogen by plants (therefore indirectly increasing fertility)?
Because wood ash increases the rate at which nitrogen is mineralised (the rate at which it turns into a form that’s available to plants).
What’s the difference between ash from hardwood and ash from conifers?
Ash from hardwood contains many more macronutrients than ash from conifers.
Where should wood ash never be applied?
In areas that are rich with mosses (mosses love acidic conditions, and wood ash raises pH).
Is glyphosate more effective against young, growing plants, or mature plants?
It’s most effective against young, actively growing plants
What does field evidence suggest about people’s application of glyphosate?
That most people apply far more chemical than is needed (up to five times as much).
Which plant bit absorbs glyphosate?
Glyphosate is absorbed through plant leaves.
What happens to glyphosate after it is absorbed by the plant’s leaves?
It is carried by the sap stream into the plant roots.
What effect does glyphosate have on plant roots after travelling from the leaves?
It prevents them from absorbing nutrients from the soil.
Which types of weeds are very easily controlled using glyphosate?
Annual weeds, including grasses.
Why are annual weeds easily controlled by glyphosate?
They have soft tissue and quickly absorb enough chemical to destroy the plant.
What two broad groups of plants are difficult to control with glyphosate?
- Plants that have bulbs
- Perennials with woody stems
True or False: Applying more Glyphosate than needed is beneficial.
False.
What is the best practice for applying glyphosate in terms of the actual amount that’s used?
Use the minimum amount of spray mix needed according to the label directions.
What should be achieved when applying glyphosate to a plant?
Uniform coverage of the target foliage without runoff.
What condition should plants be in for effective glyphosate spraying?
Plants should be actively growing.
What is necessary for adequate chemical intake when spraying glyphosate?
There must be plenty of fresh, green growth to absorb enough of the spray mix.
What should leaves be free of before spraying glyphosate (3 Things)?
Leaves should be free of…
* Dirt and dust
* Dew
* Frost
What stress conditions should plants not be under when spraying glyphosate (4 Things)?
- Dry conditions
- Waterlogging
- High temperatures (over 25°C)
- Low temperatures (below 12°C)
What is the recommended temperature for spraying glyphosate?
Do not spray if the temperature is over 25°C or below 12°C.
What type of water is best for mixing glyphosate to create dilutions?
Rainwater is best.
How long should no rain be expected after spraying glyphosate?
At least six hours (if it’s about to rain, don’t spray glyphosate).
Why should you avoid frothing of a glyphosate spray mix?
To ensure a more effective and consistent application of the chemical.
When should you avoid spraying glyphosate (Hint: wind)?
When there is a breeze that may cause spray droplets to drift.
Why must you avoid spraying glyphosate onto hard surfaces?
Glyphosate may be washed into gutters and local drains, creeks, and rivers.
What indicates that it is too windy to spray herbicides safely?
If the breeze is strong enough to shake the foliage of trees or bushes.
How do you stop glyphosate from frothing when spraying?
- Add the first 80% of the required rainwater
- Then add the glyphosate chemical
- Then slowly add the remaining 20% of water
What should you avoid doing for a week after spraying glyphosate?
Do not pull, dig or mow weeds
True or False: You should respray Glyphosate if you fail to see an obvious effect within just a few days.
False
How long may it take for visible effects of spraying perennial weeds to become evident?
Three weeks or more (remember that perennial weeds are harder to kill than soft, squishy annuals).
When using glyphosate to deal with plants that have bulbs, when should you spray them?
Spray the leaves when the plant is in flower to ensure optimal chemical transference to the roots.
What practice can improve the chances of maximum control when using glyphosate on perennial plants?
Slashing or mowing and allowing ample regrowth before spraying
How much glyphosate is used in every litre of glyphosate herbicide?
About 360g of glyphosate (the active ingredient)
How much glyphosate herbicide/dilution should you use per hectare?
5 litres
- How many cattle would you expect to be using per hectare of calcareous grassland (in livestock units)?
- What does this equate to?
- What do you still need to remember?
- 0.58 LUs of cattle
- This is the equivalent of one medium-sized suckler cow per hectare
- But remember that stocking rates will still vary between sites (e.g., sites will have differing levels of productivity)
What is a negative effect of cutting grasslands early in the season (Hint: birds)?
Displacement or killing of ground nesting birds
How does land in the English lowlands compare to uplands in terms of farming versatility?
Land in the English lowlands is generally more versatile than in the uplands.
By how much did nitrogen fertiliser use on grasslands decrease from 2002 to 2007?
24 kg/ha
True or False: Nitrogen fertiliser use on grasslands increased from 2002 to 2007.
False
How can you tell if hazel is overstood?
If the poles are of differing thickness
Give three benefits of using a power scythe
- Reduced ground compaction
- Grass cuttings can be easily raked up
- Grass fauna is not killed (ladybirds etc. survive)
When inspecting ash woodland, what’s important to consider? (Hint: replacement)
What are you going to replace the ash trees with once they inevitably succumb to ash dieback?
Which woodland layer defines a woodland?
The canopy - the species within it will determine what woodland you’re in
Give a species and one broad group of species that usually make-up a forest’s understorey
- Hazel
- Fruiting trees
When a tree falls in a forest, what will soon take its place?
Brambles!
Brambles take over when a tree falls. If they persist for too long, what might you have to do?
Consider planting the area with new trees.
- What happens to light levels as trees in woodlands grow larger?
- When is this especially true?
Light reaching the forest floor is reduced
This is particularly true if the woodland has been planted close together as a timber crop.
What is the impact of reduced light at ground level in woodlands?
It reduces the number of different species able to survive
- What characterizes most woodlands in the UK (Hint: blocks and age)?
- What does this result in?
- Composed of blocks of similar age trees
- This uniformity can lead to decreased biodiversity.
How does a natural woodland differ from a managed woodland in terms of the ages of trees?
Natural woodlands tend to have an uneven age structure
What is scarification in forestry?
A technique for controlled soil disturbance, mixing leaf litter and seeds, and exposing the mineral soil below.
Why is scarification important for species with light seeds?
To ensure that the seeds contact minerals that are needed for growth.
What microclimate does scarification create?
A moist microclimate that allows seeds to germinate before they dry out.
- What natural processes does scarification mimic?
- Give two examples
Nature’s tools for mixing soil, such as wild turkeys scratching through leaf litter and uprooted trees bringing mineral soil to the surface.
- What other management process usually takes place at the same time as scarification?
- Why?
Scarification is often done in conjunction with a timber harvest to promote tree regeneration.
- What is often prudent to combine with natural regeneration?
- Give two instances where this is especially true
- Other establishment methods (primarily planting)
- This is especially relevant where diverse management objectives exist or where the range of suitable seeding species is limited.
What are the benefits of supplementary tree planting when attempting natural regeneration (3 Points)?
- It may enrich species composition
- It may provide bird perches to increase seed distribution
- It could speed up the development of a woodland structure
Supplementary planting can be used in advance of, or in response to, initial colonisation.
What is a benefit of natural regeneration regarding tree establishment (Hint: adaptation)?
Trees that establish successfully are likely to be well matched to the current site conditions
What ecological feature can patchiness in natural regeneration create?
Transitional areas between mature woodland and open habitats, which typically has high biodiversity value
What aesthetic quality does patchy distribution in natural regeneration provide?
An attractive natural appearance
What is the ecological value of complex vegetation mosaics compared to uniform vegetation (2 Points)?
- Higher ecological value in the woodland establishment stage than uniform vegetation
- Diverse plant structures support a wider range of wildlife.
What risk does natural regeneration avoid that is associated with planting (Hint: root damage)?
Risks to root integrity which are associated with poor planting practice
- What resource use does natural regeneration eliminate?
- Why is this good?
- The resources associated with plant production and transport
- This can help conserve resources and reduce environmental impact.
What biosecurity advantage does natural regeneration offer?
Eliminates the biosecurity risks associated with plant movement (E.g., pests and diseases).
What protective measure is not needed during the initial stage of establishment in natural regeneration?
Plastic tree protection
What is a drawback of natural regeneration regarding species composition?
Species composition cannot be predetermined and may result in poor species diversity if seed sources are limited or particular species dominate
- What happens to species previously lost from the site during natural regeneration?
- Why is this bad?
- Species previously lost from the site cannot be re-established
- This limits the potential for biodiversity recovery in areas where certain species have vanished.
Why is it difficult to predict the outcomes of natural regeneration?
Successful establishment depends on the interaction of complex and unpredictable processes.
What is the state of research and operational experience regarding natural regeneration?
There is limited research and operational experience of successful establishment across the range of possible site conditions
This lack of knowledge can lead to uncertainty in management practices.
What is unpredictable in the context of natural regeneration and its establishment costs?
Timescale for succession is unpredictable and establishment costs may continue for many years
What habitat outcome can result from natural colonisation in the short to medium term?
It can result in scrub rather than woodland habitat (this outcome may not align with the desired ecological or economic objectives).
What factor determines the amount of maintenance required for a ditch?
The rate of silt and tree debris buildup
Maintenance needs increase with faster accumulation of silt and debris, impacting drainage efficiency.
How do artificial ditches compare to natural watercourses in terms of maintenance?
Artificial ditches require much more regular maintenance than natural watercourses
What issues can arise from not maintaining ditches?
Drains can start backing up
- What can result from reactive deepening and widening of ditch banks?
- When does this happen?
- Damage to wildlife
- This occurs when maintenance is not carefully planned.
- What does Defra recommend regarding dredging?
- What is often unnecessary?
- Dredging should only be carried out as required
- Annual dredging is often unnecessary.
What’s better: annual ditch dredging or infrequent dredging that’s done well?
High-quality, infrequent dredging
* This will save money
* And minimise damage and disturbance to wildlife
What percentage of vegetation should be left undisturbed during ditch maintenance?
30-50%
- What is the recommended method for maintaining ditches?
- What specifically does this maintain?
- Rotational basis, working short sections on alternate banks
- This maintains continuity
What is important to maintain in addition to ditches?
Drain outflows and the watercourses they flow into. These can become blocked with tree debris and silt build-up.
What is the role of ditches in wildlife (2 Points)?
- Ditches form a corridor that allows species to move between different areas
- They often contain rare plants lost from surrounding fields.
What condition must ditches meet to provide the most benefit to wildlife?
Ditches need to be wet for most of the year.
What is the minimum water depth required for a ditch to be in good condition?
At least 30cm depth of water throughout the year.
What is the maximum allowable water level below field level for a good ditch?
Water levels no more than 45cm below field level.
How can the wildlife value of ditches be improved (In terms of maintenance frequency)?
By managing them less frequently.
What types of species benefit from a range of different conditions in ditches (4 Points)?
- Insects needing shallow water, muddy areas, and flower-rich bankside vegetation
- Birds like warblers needing tall vegetation and reeds
- Mammals like water voles and otters needing permanent water and bankside cover
- Fish needing deep permanent water
What is one purpose of using ditches to drain winter flood water (Hint: meadows)?
To prepare lowland meadows for a summer hay cut.
What habitats require high water levels all year (2 Points)?
Reedbeds and lowland fens.
When should you mow ditch banks to avoid disturbing nesting wildlife?
- Between 1 September and 1 April
- This will avoid the bird nesting season
- What should be avoided when managing vegetation on ditch banks?
- Why?
- Cutting all bank vegetation at the same time
- This practice helps maintain continuity and a diverse range of vegetation structures.
What is the recommendation for managing the lengths of ditch banks each year?
Manage only short lengths each year
What should you never do regarding the banks of a ditch in the same year?
Never cut both banks of a ditch
How long should you leave managed sections of ditch banks before managing them again?
Up to 10 years
What is the minimum height for cutting bankside vegetation?
No shorter than 10cm
- What percentage of bankside scrub should be heavily shaded?
- Why?
- 20%
- This ensures adequate light for various plant species.
What should be left along the banks of a ditch to provide some shade?
Occasional bushes
What is the timeframe for digging out silt from a drainage ditch to maintain water flow?
Between 1 September and 1 April
- What should be maintained when digging out silt from ditches?
- Why?
- The original profile
- Deepening ditches can alter water levels in surrounding local ecosystems.
What is the consequence of using the incorrect sized tools while dredging drainage ditches?
It can damage the banks
How should silt be removed from ditches to support wildlife (in terms of the amount of silt removed)?
From sections of the ditch on different rotations
How long should each dredged section of a ditch be left before managing again?
At least 3 years (the amount of time is different for cutting ditch vegetation).
What type of ditch sides provide a range of water depths?
Shallow sloping ditch sides - if your sides are completely steep then you’ve only got one depth level!
Where should silt be deposited after removal?
In a strip a few metres wide alongside the ditch bank
What is a recommended method for spreading ditch silt?
Spread thinly to allow existing vegetation to grow back through
What areas should be avoided when spreading ditch silt?
Areas of grassland that are rich in wildflowers
Protecting these areas is essential for preserving biodiversity.
What should be done with ditch spoil containing invasive species?
Dispose of it safely - proper disposal is crucial to prevent the spread of invasive plants.
What is essential to protect the insects and plants living in ditches (Hint: maintaining something basic)?
Maintain good water quality
What can be created alongside ditches in arable fields to reduce runoff?
Grass strips
What should be done in grassland containing livestock to maintain drainage ditch water quality (2 Points)?
- Fence livestock out
- Provide alternative drinking sources
Where should you avoid fencing along ditches?
On Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) (ditches in SSSIs are critical for wildlife).
What is the recommended depth for digging a new ditch?
70cm to 1 metre.
What should be done with the excavated material from a digging a new drainage ditch?
Spread it across an adjacent or nearby field, thinly to allow existing vegetation to grow back through.
What is required for a ditch to function properly?
- Stable banks
- Consistent overall gradient (if it’s inconsistent, then drainage efficiency will be reduced).
- Sufficient depth
Each of these factors contributes to the efficiency and effectiveness of a ditch in managing water drainage.
A ditch must have _______ banks to function (Hint: erosion).
Stable - stable banks prevent erosion.
True or False: A consistent gradient is necessary for a ditch to maintain drainage efficiency.
True
An inconsistent gradient can lead to reduced drainage efficiency.
- What are herbal leys made-up of (3 Things)?
- Are they permanent, or temporary?
Temporary grasslands made up of legume, herb and grass species.
Where can you sow herbal leys (3 Places)?
- Arable fields
- Temporary grasslands
What sort of farming practices can herbal leys fall into (2 Types)?
They easily fit into arable and mixed farming rotations.
What is a key advantage of herbal leys compared to grass-clover leys?
They provide a wide variety of plant species.
How many species of grass should be included in a herbal ley seed mix?
At least 5 species of grass
What is the minimum number of species of legumes required in a herbal ley seed mix?
At least 3 species of legumes
How many species of herbs or wildflowers should be in a herbal ley seed mix?
At least 5 species of herbs or wildflowers
What percentage of a herbal ley seed mix’s weight must legumes, herbs and wildflowers account for?
At least 25% of the mix’s weight
What should be balanced when designing a herbal ley seed mix?
Cost with ley duration - cheaper varieties may not last as long.
What should be done if legumes and herbs do not last long in leys?
Increase the seed rates of legumes and herbs
Higher seed rates can enhance longevity.
Which herbal ley plant is recommended for soils high in calcium carbonate?
Sainfoin
- When should chicory be considered for a herbal ley seed mix?
- Why?
Only if you can graze it - chicory has tough stems that can damage bale wrapping.
- Species with which plant trait should be chosen for a herbal ley seed mix?
- Why (Having this trait improves two things)?
- Deep-rooting species
- Deep roots help with soil stability and nutrient uptake.
- What should Festulolium and perennial ryegrass combined not exceed in a seed mix?
- What even is Festulolium?
- 50% by weight of the total seed mix
- Festulolium is a hybrid of ryegrass and fescue species
What are the two most reliable techniques for creating herbal leys?
- Sowing into a weed-free seedbed
- Direct drilling into stubble
What pH level is optimal for clovers to grow?
Above 6.0 pH (so acidic pHs are bad).
What index levels of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are ideal for clover growth?
Above index 2 for P and K.
When is the best time to sow herbal leys based on soil temperature?
When the soil temperature is above 7°C.
What is often more successful than spring or early summer herbal ley sowing?
Late summer or early autumn sowing.
What is the maximum depth for sowing small herbal ley seeds?
No deeper than 1cm.
- What should be done after sowing herbal ley seeds?
- Why (2 Points)
- Roll after sowing.
- To retain moisture
- to ensure good seed-to-soil contact
- What should you do to your herbal leys in the summer?
- Why?
- Rest them from cutting and grazing for at least 5 weeks
- This resting period allows flowers to open and provide a source of pollen and nectar for insects.
How long should herbal leys be rested (not grazed or cut) in the summer?
At least 5 weeks.
