20 a Day (6) Flashcards
After digging-up a ditch, what should you do with the slop?
Leave it by the side of the ditch for a few days so anything alive inside can crawl back into the ditch.
Where would you expect to find ditches?
Everywhere!
What’s generally considered to be better: a small or a big piece of deadwood?
A big piece of deadwood (the bigger, the better).
When using a glyphosate dilution to treat cut stumps, what should you add to the mix?
Blue dye, so that you know which stumps have been treated.
Name the four stages of a heather plant’s lifecycle.
- Pioneer
- Building
- Mature
- Degenerate
What will happen when a heather plant reaches the degenerate stage?
It will leave behind a patch of bareground that will likely be colonised by mosses.
- What sort of artificial habitat is great for ground nesting birds?
- Why?
- Fenced-off coppice coupes.
- When ground nesting birds aren’t fenced-off, photographers may scare them off.
Give one reason why bonfires aren’t recommended in areas that are used by the public (Hint: wellies).
Embers may remain which can damage shoes.
Why might you put a dead hedge around a heathland?
To stop dogs from entering the area.
Someone offers to control deer to you for a price. When may you not want to take them up on their offer?
It’s pointless to control deer if your neighbours won’t control them as well.
- What’s wrong with these hedges?
- How can you deal with them?
- They’re overstood
- You can make them better by laying them
Is there a limit to how many dead standing trees you can have?
No - keep as many dead standing trees as you can as long as they don’t pose a threat to the public.
Why might some woods aim for 30% of all trees to be conifers?
To help deciduous trees (remember that conifers make for great nursery trees).
What’s the main way you manage for veteran trees?
By haloing around trees that appear to be growing strongly.
When will you need a felling license to cut down a tree (2 Points).
- When the tree has a diameter of 8cm or more at a height of 1.3m
- (If thinning) when the tree has a diameter of 10cm or more at a height of 1.3m
- What is this?
- Why is it beneficial?
- A culvert.
- Culverts allow for proper water drainage, preventing erosion and flooding on forest roads.
When are culverts vulnerable?
During autumn, as they can be blocked-up by leaf debris.
Why can holly be a big nuisance in a forest?
Because the seeds set so readily.
A dead standing tree is near a path. Give two reasons why it may not pose that much of a threat.
- There may be other trees in the way which can catch it if it falls.
- The footpath may be rarely used.
What are these things called that are growing out of this near-horizontal trunk?
Sun shoots!
Why might chestnut pailings surround a veteran tree?
To stop people from going near it (branches may snap off and bonk them).
What’s this?
A monolith - a 10m high dead tree with its crown and all other branches removed.
Give two reasons why all of the branches (including the crown) are removed from a dead tree when creating a monolith.
- The tree hopefully won’t fall over
- Woodpeckers are apparently less likely to drill holes in trees with no branches
Why might this be?
Bilberries!
What’s better for clearing a ditch: a shovel or a spade?
A spade!
What are the primary food plants for the caterpillars of the Large White butterfly?
Cabbage, broccoli, and other brassicas.
The caterpillars of the painted lady butterfly primarily feed on __________.
Thistles.
Which butterfly species is known for using the plant clover as a food source for its caterpillars?
The Common Blue butterfly.
- What is the primary food plant for the caterpillars of swallowtail butterflies (there are native and migrant species)?
- What species does our native swallowtail species feed on?
- Umbellifers (e.g., wild carrot)
- Native swallowtails feed on milk parsley (also an umbellifer)
The caterpillars of which butterfly feed on holly leaves?
Holly blue butterflies
The caterpillars of which butterfly are entirely dependent on oak trees?
The purple hairstreak butterfly
Why do you rarely ever see purple hairstreak butterflies?
Because they spend the vast majority of their time flying in the canopy
What is the main food plant of red admiral caterpillars?
Nettles!
Give two plants you can add to attract red admirals
- Nettles
- Buddleia
What sort of vegetation do you need to provide habitat space for song thrushes?
Dense vegetation.
What is a common feature of gardens that attracts song thrushes? A) Large open spaces B) Dense shrubs C) Water fountains
B) Dense shrubs.
What are song thrushes known for (Hint: vocal).
They can mimic other birds’ songs, as well as man-made sounds.
What is the primary habitat requirement for barn owls in the UK?
Barn owls primarily require open farmland and grasslands for hunting.
What is one sign that indicates the presence of barn owls in an area?
Finding grey pellets containing undigested bones and fur.
Give one way you can control vole numbers without cutting grass.
By supporting barn owl populations (e.g., by building nest boxes).
What group of food plants do orange-tip butterflies like?
Crucifers (crucifers have four petals arranged in a cross).
What is gypsum primarily used for in UK soils?
Gypsum is primarily used to improve soil structure and drainage.
- True or False: Gypsum can help reduce soil salinity.
- Why?
- True
- Gypsum replaces sodium with calcium
What element does gypsum add to the soil that helps to promote plant growth?
Calcium
Which of the following is a benefit of using gypsum in soils? A) Increased soil acidity B) Improved water infiltration C) Decreased microbial activity
B) Improved water infiltration
What can you add to soils to help increase root penetration in compacted soils?
Gypsum
Other than calcium, what other element is added to soil by gypsum application?
Sulphur.
- How does gypsum affect soil pH?
- Why?
Gypsum does not significantly change soil pH because it is a neutral salt.
Gypsum improves water drainage by promoting…
…The aggregation of soil particles
What’s the first thing that’s considered when the use of hebicides is brought up?
Can the usage of herbicides (or pesticides for that matter) be eliminated entirely (AKA is it necessary to use them, or is there another way?)
What new challenge is facing extensive livestock farming (Hint: money making)?
Very low profitability, primarily because enterprises were often only economically viable due to high subsidies.
- Livestock grazing can help to maintain plant biodiversity by preventing…
- Give two reasons how.
…Plant competition (e.g., some species won’t become dominant, and scrub encroachment may be prevented).
- What is a key difference between livestock grazing and cutting or burning?
- Why is this beneficial for some animal species?
- Grazing removes plant material more gradually
- This gradual removal allows mobile species to move within the habitat more easily
What basic effect does trampling by livestock have on vegetation?
Creates gaps that allow seedlings to grow
Even within the same ________________, individual __________ may have ________________.
Even within the same livestock type, individual breeds may have distinct grazing behaviors.
- Horse and pony grazing is similar to another type of animal grazing. What is it?
- What feature of horses and ponies allows this?
- They can graze as close to the ground as rabbits
- Their forward-pointing teeth allow them to graze very low
- What are ‘latrine’ areas in horse and pony grazing pastures?
- Who do they benefits?
- What’s their main drawback?
- Untouched patches of vegetation left by selective grazers (since they like to poop and pee in these spots).
- These dense areas can benefit insects and small mammals.
- But they may lead to rank grass if unmanaged.
- What type of grazers are equines (selective, or non-selective)?
- What does this mean?
- Horses and ponies are selective grazers
- This means that they create vegetation mosaics with grazed patches and areas of undisturbed vegetation.
Which pony is often used for conservation grazing instead of native equines?
Polish konik pony
What is a common misconception about Exmoor ponies (and hence why Polish konik ponies are preferred)?
That they would not thrive in wetland habitats.
What is a key characteristic of the Exmoor pony?
They’re an extremely hardy breed tolerant of most weather conditions.
What type of coat do Exmoor ponies have that contributes to their hardiness?
A double winter coat.
- What animal can you use to help manage gorse?
- What makes it good?
- Highland ponies
- They develop additional hair on their lips, making gorse browsing a lot easier
How can you reduce livestock poaching on soft soils?
By using smaller breeds.
True or False: Native equines can easily maintain condition and withstand British weather.
True.
Are sheep selective or non-selective grazers?
They’re selective grazers
Sheep are selective grazers.
* What type of plants do sheep prefer to graze on?
* What impact may this have?
- Flowering plants
- This can have a negative effect on flowering plant diversity
- What sort of swards do sheep not like to graze?
- What will they do to these swards?
- Tall swards
- These swards will often be trampled instead
Sheep can graze very close to the ground, resulting in _______.
Tight ‘lawn-like’ vegetation.
How do cattle use their tongues when grazing?
Cattle use their tongues to pull tufts of vegetation into their mouths
- What is the grazing behavior of cattle regarding vegetation height?
- Why?
- Cattle do not graze vegetation too close to the ground
- This is because cattle use their tongues when grazing, so only grass that’s tall enough can be ripped-up
- What do cattle often leave behind after grazing?
- Why?
- Cattle often leave tussocks of grass
- This is because grasses that are too short get left behind (since cattle can’t wrap their tongues around them)
Why is it beneficial that tussocks of grass are left behind by cattle when they graze with their tongues?
These tussocks of grass are used by insects and small mammals
- Do cattle graze selectively?
- Why?
- No, cattle are non-selective grazers.
- This is generally because of their wide mouths and their tongue-wrapping method of grazing.
What do cattle not target while grazing?
Cattle do not target flower heads and herbage.
What significant changes occurred in England’s agriculture during the second half of the twentieth century?
Huge increases in crop and livestock production through intensification of farming methods and specialisation of farm businesses
This period marked a shift towards more efficient agricultural practices.
- The shift from _______ to _________ is one of the changes in farming practices (Hint: from one grassy thing to another grassy thing).
- What does this shift represent?
- The transition from hay to silage.
- This change reflects a move towards more efficient methods of creating animal feed.
Give four characteristics of “improved” grasslands
- The addition of artificial fertilisers,
- The addition of herbicides
- Artificial drainage
- They’re often re-seeded
What has dramatically accelerated livestock numbers in some parts of the country (Hint: money)?
Support payments for sheep and cattle provided by the Common Agricultural Policy
- What type of payments led farmers to maximize livestock numbers?
- How did these payments work?
- ‘Headage’ based payments calculated on the number of livestock on a farm
- This payment system encourages farmers to increase animal numbers for greater financial benefit.
- What significant change has occurred in the Common Agricultural Policy?
- When did this change occur?
- Why did the change get implemented?
- Farmers no longer receive payments based on the number of animals they own
- The change was implemented in 2005
- This reform aims to address over-grazing and other environmental issues.
- What is a potential negative impact of policy changes on livestock grazing (AKA no more headage payments)?
- Where will this issue be especially prevalent and why?
- Under-grazing or the withdrawal of grazing
- This will be particularly evident in lowland areas where livestock production has already declined.
Which area, uplands or lowlands, is likely to experience under-grazing due to policy changes?
Lowlands - this is where livestock production has already declined.
Grazing has become more specialised over the past 50 years. What does this mean and why is it bad?
- Fields are only being crammed with just one animal type.
- This will make it harder to maintain habitat mosaics that biodiversity depends on
What type of soils do lowland heaths occur on (in terms of nutrients and pH)?
Nutrient poor, acidic soils
Name three characteristic plants found in lowland heath.
- Heather
- Birch
- Gorse
Give three birds of European importance that are associated with lowland heath
- Dartford warbler
- Nightjar
- Woodlark
Give two rare reptiles are primarily found in lowland heath
- Sand lizard
- Smooth snake
What type of vegetation mosaic do birds, reptiles, and heathland plant species require?
A mosaic of both open and dense vegetation
What four things are typically found in well-managed heathland?
- Areas of grassland
- Gorse
- Scattered trees and scrub
- Bare ground
- Give one rare bird species that’s associated with calcareous grasslands.
- Why does it like them?
- Stone curlews
- This is because they prefer short grass habitats and dry, stony ground
The average electric fence has many conditions that can divert or impede to flow of electricity. Collectively, what are these called?
Fence load.
- What is the most common contributor to a heavy fence load?
- Why are they bad (Hint: two things are drawn to the Earth)?
- Weeds or vegetation growing on the fence line
- Green plants draw voltage and amperage from the fence to earth.
- What happens when a fence is said to be ‘shorted out’?
- When will this happen?
- All electricity produced by the energiser is drawn from the fence
- This occurs when enough conditions exist to impede the flow of electricity (e.g., too many weeds or bad insulators)
This occurs when enough conditions exist to impede the flow of electricity.
Name four factors that can allow electricity to leak from the fence and into the Earth.
- Cracked or broken insulators
- Insulators of poor design
- Sagging or broken wires
- Weeds!
How does wet weather affect electric fences?
It magnifies existing problems (e.g., shorting out)
Give four things that can contribute to fence load without drawing electricity into the Earth
- Rusty wire
- Poor splices (connections between two wires)
- Insufficient diameter wire
- Fence length (longer fences have greater fence load)
These issues impede the flow of electricity but do not draw it to earth.
How does the length of the fence affect its performance?
Longer fences have less ability to store energy
What is the most common failure in electric fence operation?
Inadequate earthing
- What type of vegetation do cattle prefer to graze?
- Are they selective or un-selective grazers?
- Taller vegetation (>10cm)
- They are unselective grazers
- What types of sites are cattle best suited for grazing?
- Give two examples
- Fertile sites with large quantities of tall and coarse vegetation
- Rush-dominated wetlands
- Neutral grasslands
What is a risk associated with the large size of cattle (Hint: they can damage sites with certain soils)?
They are more likely to damage fragile sites with thin or peaty soils
Give two ways in which cattle can contribute to woodland regeneration (Hint: germination and rhizomes).
- By creating seed germination niches
- By trampling bracken rhizomes
What is a concern when grazing cattle in wet and boggy areas?
The risk of them becoming stuck
Why has it become less common to graze cattle on extensive upland areas?
Due to their relatively high value compared to sheep
What innovation has made grazing cattle on upland areas more practical?
No-fence collars to control the areas that cattle can access
Name three small, hardy, native cattle
- Luing
- Galloway
- Highlanders
Fill in the blank: Cattle prefer to graze taller vegetation greater than _______.
> 10cm
What type of vegetation do sheep prefer to graze (E.g., what height)?
Shorter vegetation (<10cm)
- What types of grassland are sheep better suited to (2 Different types)?
- Why?
- Acid and calcareous grassland
- Sheep thrive in vegetation types that have a short sward
Why are sheep better suited than cattle to sites with fragile soils?
Due to their lighter weight
- When are sheep and cattle more likely to browse on woody vegetation?
- Why?
- During the winter months.
- Because more palatable plants are in short supply.
True or False: Sheep only graze on grasses and not on woody vegetation.
False - sheep and cattle will browse on woody vegetation, especially when other plants are less available.
Sheep are better suited to vegetation types with a _______.
Short sward
What are goats notorious for when it comes to grazing (HInt: maybe they don’t graze at all)?
They show a much greater preference for browsing woody vegetation when compared to cattle and sheep.
What is the standard way of describing and comparing the grazing impact of different herbivores?
Livestock Unit (LU)
How is one cow and calf represented in Livestock Units?
One Livestock Unit
How can grazing pressure on land be described (AKA give a unit)?
Livestock Units per hectare (LU/ha)
Give two things that are worth a single livestock unit (Hint: one is a pair of things)
- One cow and one calf
- A cattle that’s older than 24 months
What is stocking rate?
The number of animals that an area of habitat can support over the course of the year.
What is stocking density?
The number of animals on an area of land at any one time.
True or False: Stocking rate and stocking density are the same concept.
False - stocking rate refers to annual capacity, while stocking density refers to the number of animals present at a specific time.
Stocking rate is measured in _______.
livestock units (LU) per hectare.
What predominantly controls stocking rate?
- The annual production of vegetation within the habitat
- The rate at which this can be utilised (eaten) by herbivores without moving the vegetation away from good condition through overgrazing or under-grazing
What two factors influence maximum stocking density?
- Available forage for herbivores
- Risk of damage to the sward and fragile soils
What is one practical conservation reason for implementing seasonal grazing (Hint: seeds)?
Providing a break to allow plants to flower and set seed
What is another reason for implementing seasonal grazing (Hint: eggs)?
To avoid egg trampling of ground-nesting birds during the nesting season
- Why might grazing be reduced in winter?
- When won’t this be an issue?
- To minimize browsing impacts on regenerating trees and shrubs
- This is crucial unless the goal is to reduce scrub encroachment.
What is a reason to prevent grazing during wet conditions?
To prevent damage to swards and soils
Maximum stocking density is influenced by available forage for herbivores and _______.
Risk of damage to the sward and fragile soils
What is the aim of seasonal or intermittent grazing?
To allow for the recovery of vegetation and protect wildlife during critical periods
When might some vegetation not support the nutritional needs of livestock?
During winter (there’s less nutrition available during this time of the year).
What is a reason related to livestock health for implementing grazing breaks?
The need to break the life cycle of parasites.
What is a practical option when sites cannot support a low stocking rate year-round?
A shorter period of higher stocking density.
- Give two recent grazing systems have gained interest for biodiversity
- What do these systems aim to do?
- Rotational and mob grazing systems
- These systems aim to enhance biodiversity compared to traditional methods.
What is mob grazing sometimes referred to as (2Different things)?
Holistic planned grazing or long grass grazing
- What is a key characteristic of mob grazing in terms of paddock size (Hint: size)?
- What are these paddocks usually enclosed by?
- Smaller paddocks (e.g., 0.5-1.0ha)
- These paddocks are often enclosed by temporary electric fencing.
What is the typical duration of grazing periods in mob grazing?
Up to 1-2 days
How long are the rest periods in mob grazing?
Up to 40-80 days
- In which type of habitat is mob grazing most suitable?
- Why?
- More fertile grasslands
- This is where vegetation can grow tall before livestock return.
What type of livestock is mob grazing most suitable for?
Cattle
What are the three main benefits of mob grazing?
- The long rest period can be timed to benefit flowering plants or nesting birds in areas important for these species
- It allows plants to divert energy into developing stronger root systems, rather than into regrowing grazed foliage
- It builds organic matter in the soil, making habitats more resilient.
When does grassland generally support higher stocking densities?
In the summer
What is the ideal grazing strategy during winter to avoid supplementary feeding?
A grazing break or lower intensity grazing
What is the ideal timing for a grazing break if a site is rich in wild flowers?
May-July
What is likely required in late summer/early autumn following a summer grazing break?
A period of higher stocking density
This helps to remove the growth from the summer break.
- What grazing management practice is recommended when ground-nesting birds are present?
- Name three different types of ground-nesting bird
- A grazing exclusion period should be used to allow them to nest without the risk of nest trampling or egg predation.
- Lapwings, redshanks, and curlews
What should be the maximum stocking rate applied during the bird nesting period if grazing exclusion is not possible (If ground-nesting birds are present)?
No more than 0.6 LU/ha.
True or False: Grazing exclusion is always feasible for protecting nesting birds.
False.
- What are peat and peaty soils vulnerable to (Hint: moo moos)?
- Why?
- Trampling damage
- Peat and peaty soils have a soft texture, making them easily damaged.
Why is it bad if the vegetation on blanket bogs gets damaged?
Blanket bog vegetation is very slow to grow and recover
What are the recommended stocking rates on blanket bog?
Very low
The habitat may not need grazing by livestock at all.
- What is the ideal goal after grazing on artificially drained blanket bogs?
- Why?
- Rewet the bog and reduce the need for grazing in future
- This approach aims to restore the natural wetland conditions.
A blanket bog is being dominated by heath. What should be done before grazing can take place to control it (2 Points)?
- The bog should be artificially drained.
- This will allow grazing to occur because the soils won’t be so wet.
- What are blanket bogs?
- What are the three characteristic plants of blanket bogs?
- Where deep peat soils (>50cm deep) are found
- Heather, cotton grass and sphagnum moss.
- How are deer densities typically expressed in landscapes?
- Why is a similar unit not used?
- Deer per km2
- Livestock Units (LUs) are not used because deer roam over such large areas
What is the recommended maximum deer density in open upland landscapes to prevent habitat damage?
8-10 deer per km2
This helps protect moorland habitats from overgrazing.
- What does a deer density of 8-10 deer per km2 equate to in livestock units?
- What does this value reflect?
- 0.02-0.03 LU/ha
- This conversion reflects the ecological impact of deer on fragile habitats.
- What behavior of deer can lead to increased impacts in certain areas?
- What two impacts will be exacerbated?
- Concentrating in favoured areas
- This can exacerbate the effects of grazing and trampling.
- Where is more forage available: woodland habitats or open habitats?
- Why?
- There is less forage available in woodland habitats than in open habitats.
- This is because of tree canopy shade.
How should the initial stocking rate be determined in a habitat mosaic?
By the proportion of the site occupied by each habitat multiplied by the guideline stocking rate for that habitat
What should be used if management aims at one component of the mosaic?
An appropriate stocking rate for that component
Why is monitoring particularly important in habitat mosaics?
Grazing animals may not graze each component habitat at the appropriate rate, leading to localized over- or under-grazing
What can happen in large mosaics that include woodland during winter?
Herbivores may move into the shelter of the woodland, resulting in locally high grazing and browsing pressure
True or False: A low overall stocking rate guarantees even grazing across all habitats.
False
- What two heather species dominant dry parts of heaths?
- What about the moist bits?
- Dry parts: ling heather and bell heather
- Moister parts: cross-leaved heather
- What are the two main management practices used in heaths?
- What do they help to maintain (in terms of soil conditions).
- Grazing and swaling
- They help to maintain acidic, low-nutrient soils
What is the primary purpose of swaling in heathlands?
To burn away the surface layer of grass to enable new growth.
What harmful organisms does swaling help to eliminate?
Ticks that spread lethal diseases.
What additional conservation benefit comes from grazing immediately after swaling?
Animal hooves can crush bracken rhizomes that don’t get burned away.
- Are upland or lowland habitats more susceptible to nitrogen deposition?
- Just how bad can nitrogen deposition be in these habitats?
- Nitrogen deposition is worse in upland habitats
- In upland heaths, the rate of nitrogen deposition equals the rate at which nitrogen enters these ecosystems through fertiliser application
What significant agricultural change occurred in the UK during 1940 and 1941?
A ‘plough-up’ that converted large swathes of lowlands into arable farmland
- What type of grass species is particularly difficult to eradicate in calcareous grasslands?
- Why?
- Tor-grass (Brachypodium pinnatum)
- Tor-grass greatly benefits from elevated levels of nitrogen, but can withstand low phosphorus conditions (that are characteristic of calcareous grasslands).
The majority of calcareous grasslands are in areas that are _______ (Hint: unsuitable).
Unsuitable for agriculture
What is the active ingredient in some chemical deer repellants?
37% putrescent whole egg solids
When should chemical deer repellents be applied to fruit trees?
Prior to flowering
When should chemical deer repellents be applied to ornamental trees?
During the dormant season
Where should chemical deer repellents be applied on the trees?
To new growth
How long are chemical deer repellents claimed to be effective?
Two to six months
- If you’re suffering from heavy deer damage, what’s more effective: fencing or chemical repellants?
- Why?
Deer fencing - it would likely be much cheaper in the long run
Why should you avoid adjusting soil pH?
Because it’s more sustainable to create a community that’s adapted to the conditions that are already present.
What is required where the water-holding capacity of the substrate is low?
Organic matter addition
When mixing organic matter into soil to improve its water-holding capacity, how deep do you need to mix?
The top 5cm of soil.
- What should be ensured regarding nutrient levels when adding organic matter?
- Why?
- Nutrient levels should not be raised too high
- High nutrient levels can favor nutrient-demanding rank grass species.
You’re trying to raise some soil’s capacity to hold water by adding organic matter.
* Give two suitable types of organic matter you can add.
* Why are these good?
- Paper-mill sludge
- Spent-mushroom compost
- These types of organic matter don’t raise nutrient levels too much, helping to prevent rank grass growth
What percentage of dry calcareous soil should be nitrogen?
Roughly 1%
Name one technique to reduce soil fertility that isn’t mowing/cutting.
Soil blending with a low fertility substrate
What is the recommended inorganic fertiliser addition for establishing calcareous grassland?
25–50 kg ha-1 of NPK Liquid 25:25:25 in a slow-release form.
- What should be preferred over inorganic fertiliser for nutrient provision in calcareous grassland?
- Name three of them
The establishment of legumes such as vetches, trefoils, and sainfoin.
- Calcareous grassland can be established by using which inorganic fertiliser?
- How much of it is required?
- What form is it needed in?
25–50 kg ha-1 of NPK Liquid 25:25:25 in a slow-release form.
When is the natural colonisation of bare calcareous substrates suitable (2 Points)?
- Where long establishment time frames are acceptable (several decades)
- Species-rich calcareous grassland communities are adjacent
What should be used to determine if a seed bank remains in the existing substrate?
Germination trials.
What type of habitats can natural colonisation produce?
Species-rich habitats appropriate to the local area.
How long does it typically take to establish a stable community through natural colonisation?
Several decades.
What may remain in the area if lowland calcareous grassland existed prior to disturbance?
A seed bank.
Give three ways of accelerating the natural colonisation of wildflower species into calcareous grasslands
- Turf inoculants
- Seeding
- Green hay strewing
- Where can turf inoculants be obtained from?
- How are they incorporated?
- What can turf inoculants be (2 things).
- Turf inoculants can be taken from adjacent donor areas
- They are incorporated into bare substrate.
- These can be either whole turf fragments or plugs of grassland
containing desirable species.
