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Biology GCSE > 2- Organisation > Flashcards

2- Organisation Flashcards

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1
Q

What does the right side of the heart do?

A

The right side pumps blood to the lungs under lower pressure to collect oxygen and remove carbon dioxide

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2
Q

What does the left side of the heart do?

A

The left side pumps blood to the body under high pressure to give body cells oxygen and take away carbon dioxide

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3
Q

Why is the heart called a double circulatory system?

A

Because there are two sides pumping blood to two different places

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4
Q

How efficient is the heart and why?

A

It is very efficient as body cells receive fully oxygenated blood quickly (higher blood flow rate)

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5
Q

What parts of the heart are on the right side?

A
  • pulmonary artery
  • vena cava
  • right atrium
  • heart valve
  • right ventricle
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6
Q

What parts of the heart are on the left side?

A
  • aorta
  • pulmonary vein
  • left atrium
  • heart valve
  • left ventricle
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7
Q

What is the purpose of the semi-lunar valves?

A
  • The semi-lunar valves prevent blood flowing back into the ventricles between beats for pulmonary artery and aorta
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8
Q

How is the heart broadly structured and how does blood move through the heart?

A
  • Separated into upper chambers called atria and lower chambers called ventricles
  • The atria pump blood to ventricles. The ventricles pump blood to either the lungs (right ventricle) or the body (left ventricle)
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9
Q

Why is the heart muscle of the left ventricle thicker than the right?

A
  • heart muscle of left ventricle is thicker than right. This allows the heart to contract more strongly, pumping blood at higher pressure
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10
Q

What is the purpose of the atrioventricular valves?

A
  • The atrioventricular valves separate the atria and ventricles and prevent the backflow of blood
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11
Q

Definition of ventilation

A

The physical movement of air into and out of the lungs to allow gas exchange to occur

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12
Q

Definition of gas exchange

A

The diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between air in the alveoli and the blood in capillaries

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13
Q

Definition of respiration

A

The exothermic reaction continually occurring in living cells to release energy from molecules in food

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14
Q

Function of alveoli

A

The site of gas exchange

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15
Q

Function of diaphragm and intercostal muscles

A

muscles involved in bringing about process of ventilation

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16
Q

Definition of trachea, bronchi and bronchioles

A

The airways through which air moves to and from the alveoli during ventilation

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17
Q

Adaptations of alveoli

A
  1. Many alveoli to provide increased SA for diffusion
  2. Thin walls to provide a shorter diffusion distance
  3. Good blood supply to maintain steep conc. gradient
  4. Good ventilation to maintain steep conc. gradient (supply fresh O2 to blood)
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18
Q

What is oxygen debt caused by?

A

The movement of lactic acid (which causes fatigue) to the liver and the use of oxygen to convert lactic acid into glucose

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19
Q

What is plasma?

A

Plasma is the liquid part of the blood

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20
Q

What is the function of blood plasma?

A

The function of blood plasma is to transport the blood cells and other substances around the body.

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21
Q

Examples of chemicals that are transported in blood plasma

A
  • waste carbon dioxide
  • urea
  • glucose
  • amino acids
  • hormones
  • proteins
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22
Q

Function of red blood cells

A

Transports oxygen around body

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23
Q

Give 3 adaptations of red blood cells

A
  • Biconcave discs- increased surface area to volume ratio for diffusion
  • Packed with haemoglobin that binds to oxygen
  • No nucleus, making more space for haemoglobin
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24
Q

Function of white blood cells

A

Form part of the body’s defence system against microorganisms

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25
Q

What are the two types of white blood cells?

A
  • Phagocytes
  • Lymphocytes
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26
Q

Functions of phagocytes

A

Engulfs pathogens

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27
Q

Functions of lymphocytes

A

Produces antibodies and anti-toxins

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28
Q

What are platelets?

A

Fragments of cells with cell membrane and cytoplasm but no nucleus

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29
Q

What is the role of platelets?

A

They help blood clot at the site of a wound as they are captured to form a jelly-like clot that stops you bleeding to death. The clot dries and hardens to form a scab, stopping bacteria entering the body through the wound

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30
Q

What is the equation for cardiac output?

A

Cardiac output = Heart rate x stroke volume

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31
Q

Function of veins

A

Carry blood away from organs towards heart

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32
Q

Is blood in veins oxygenated or deoxygenated?

A

Deoxygenated

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33
Q

Pressure in veins

A

Low pressure

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34
Q

Thickness of walls in veins

A

Thin walls

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35
Q

Diameter of lumen in veins

A

Large lumen

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36
Q

Do veins have valves?

A

Yes

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37
Q

Function of arteries

A

Carries blood away from the heart to the organs

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38
Q

Pressure of blood in arteries

A

high pressure

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39
Q

Is blood in arteries oxygenated or deoxygenated?

A

Oxygenated

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40
Q

Thickness of walls in arteries

A

Thick walls

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41
Q

Lumen diameter in arteries

A

Small lumen

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42
Q

Are there valves in arteries?

A

No

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43
Q

Function of capillaries

A

Links arteries and veins

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44
Q

Pressure of blood in capillaries

A

Very low pressure

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45
Q

Is blood in capillaries oxygenated or deoxygenated?

A

Oxygenated + deoxygenated

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46
Q

Thickness of walls in capillaries

A

Walls are one cell thick

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47
Q

Lumen diameter in capillaries

A

Very small lumen

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48
Q

Are there valves in capillaries?

A

No

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49
Q

What is the purpose of the coronary artery?

A

It supplies the cardiac muscle with oxygen and glucose which enables the heart to carry out respiration so that is can contract

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50
Q

What happens when someone has coronary heart disease?

A

Layers of fatty material build up inside the coronary arteries, narrowing them. This reduces the flow of blood through the coronary arteries to the cardiac muscle, resulting in a lack of oxygen for the heart muscle. This means that the muscle cells carry out less aerobic respiration and energy release. The heart beats less effectively and it can lead to a condition called angina. If the coronary artery becomes completely blocked it will lead to a heart attack (or myocardial infarction)

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51
Q

What is the fatty material that builds up in the coronary arteries when someone has CHD?

A

The fatty material is made of a lipid called cholesterol

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52
Q

Where does cholesterol come from?

A

Cholesterol comes from the diet (in saturated fat)

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53
Q

Where is cholesterol synthesised?

A

In the liver

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54
Q

What are two treatments for coronary heart disease?

A

Statins and stents

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55
Q

What are statins?

A
  • Drugs used to reduce blood cholesterol (by blocking an enzyme in the liver) which slows down the rate of fatty material deposit
56
Q

Pros of statins

A

Lower cholesterol effectively and therefore an effective prevention

57
Q

Cons of statins

A
  • Must be taken long-term
  • If you forget to take them they are less effective
  • Take time to work
  • Undesirable side effects in some people
58
Q

What are stents?

A
  • A very tiny expandable metal mesh used to keep coronary arteries open
  • enables blood to flow more easily
59
Q

How do stents work?

A
  1. The very tiny expandable metal mesh is placed inside a blood vessel
  2. Inflated using a tiny balloon
  3. Balloon removed but stent remains inflated
60
Q

Pros of stents

A
  • drugs do not have to be taken long-term
  • can remain in place for a long time
61
Q

Cons of stents

A
  • risks during surgery (e.g. complications, infections)
  • risk of blood clotting
62
Q

What are the two main faults in heart valves?

A
  • The heart valve tissue might stiffen, preventing the valve from opening fully
  • The heart valve might develop a leak
63
Q

How can faulty heart valves be replaced?

A
  • Biological valves - valves from humans or other mammals
  • Mechanical valves
64
Q

Pros of biological valves

A
  • anti-clotting drugs are not needed
  • does not make noises
65
Q

Cons of biological valves

A
  • ethical issues surrounding the use of animal tissues
  • not as long lasting (10-15 years), may need to be replaced- more than one operation
  • may be rejected
  • need to take anti-rejection medication
66
Q

Pros of mechanical valves

A
  • long-lasting (decades)
  • no ethical issues
  • no risk of rejection
  • no risk of disease transmission
67
Q

Cons of mechanical valves

A
  • must take anti-clotting medication which can have side-effects
  • can hear valves opening and closing
68
Q

What is the natural resting heart rate controlled by?

A

A group of cells that act as the pacemaker

69
Q

Where is the natural pacemaker found?

A

In the right atrium

70
Q

What does the natural pacemaker do?

A

Produces an electrical signal that spreads through the heart muscle to make it contract

71
Q

What are artificial pacemakers?

A

Electrical devices used to correct irregularities in the heart rate - send strong regular signals to ensure the heart beats properly

72
Q

Pros of artificial heart transplants

A
  • can be used until a donor heart is ready
  • can also be used to rest a diseased heart
  • freely available - more likely to be available as manufactured
  • no risk of rejection
73
Q

Cons of artificial heart transplants

A
  • cannot be used long-term
  • risk of blood clotting - need to take anti-clotting medication
  • very expensive
74
Q

Pros of biological heart transplants

A
  • Most effective at pumping blood around the body
  • Long-term treatment for heart disease
75
Q

Cons of biological heart transplants

A
  • Not always available - have to wait for a donor heart that is a tissue match- many people die before they get the chance to have a transplant
  • Possible rejection by the immune system - need to take immunosuppressant medication
  • risk of blood clots - but smaller than artificial
76
Q

What happens when there is heart failure (in terms of solutions)?

A
  • In case of heart failure a donor heart, or heart and lungs can be transplanted
  • Artificial hearts occasionally used to keep patients alive whilst waiting for a heart transplant- or allow the heart to rest as an aid to recovery
77
Q

Definition of health

A

Health is a state of both physical and mental well-being

78
Q

What factors lead to someone being ‘healthy’?

A

Balanced diet, good sleep, regular exercise, access to healthcare

79
Q

Definition of disease

A

A disease is a condition that can cause ill health

80
Q

What can disease be caused by?

A

Disease can be caused by bad lifestyle choices, genetic factors or pathogens unrelated to lifestyle

81
Q

What are the two main types of diseases?

A

Communicable or non-communicable

82
Q

What is a communicable disease?

A

A communicable disease can be spread from person to person, or from animal to person

83
Q

What are communicable diseases caused by?

A

Viruses, bacteria, parasites and fungi

84
Q

Give 7 examples of communicable diseases

A
  • chickenpox
  • gonorrhoea
  • malaria
  • covid
  • polio
  • veruca
  • salmonella
85
Q

What is a non-communicable disease?

A

A non-communicable disease is one that can’t spread from person to person

86
Q

Give 4 examples of non-communicable diseases

A
  • cancer
  • coronary heart disease
  • diabetes
  • asthma
87
Q

What do risk factors do?

A

A risk factor increases the chance that a person will develop a certain disease.

88
Q

What are examples of lifestyle risk factors?

A
  • diet
  • sleep
  • exercise
  • alcohol / smoking
89
Q

What are examples of environmental risk factors?

A
  • ionising radiation
  • UV light from the sun
  • second-hand tobacco smoke (passive smoking)
  • air pollution
90
Q

What is a cardiovascular disease?

A

A cardiovascular disease is any disease that affects the heart or blood vessels e.g. valve disease, CHD, strokes, etc.

91
Q

What are the risk factors for cardiovascular diseases?

A
  1. High fat diet and obesity can lead up to the build up of cholesterol inside artery walls leading to CHD and strokes
  2. Lack of exercise leads to a weakening of the heart muscle which can lead to cardiovascular disease
  3. Too much salt can lead to a high blood pressure which can lead to heart disease
92
Q

How can obesity lead to Type 2 diabetes?

A
  • If people eat a carbohydrate-rich diet their blood sugar levels become too high
  • In healthy people insulin is released to lower blood glucose
  • over time repeatedly eating carbohydrate rich food can lead to liver cells failing to respond to insulin
  • This leads to blood glucose levels becoming too high
  • This leads to symptoms of type II diabetes
93
Q

What are the effects of alcohol on the body?

A
  • Alcohol is processed in the liver where it is turned into other molecules that can be excreted
  • However, too much alcohol kills liver cells and can lead to fatty liver disease, liver cirrhosis and liver cancer
  • too much alcohol can lead to alcohol related brain damage (ARBD) and is associated with dementia
  • Alcohol is also addictive
94
Q

What are the effects of smoking on the body?

A

Cigarettes contain many harmful chemicals which kill epithelial cells, paralyse cilia and mutate DNA. This leads to:
- Emphysema - the fusing of alveoli into larger sacs due to death of epithelial cells with smaller surface area leading to breathlessness
- Bronchitis - inability to remove mucus due to paralysed cilia
- Lung cancer - mutations in DNA can lead to cancer developing

95
Q

Effects of smoking during pregnancy

A

Smoking during pregnancy can lead to babies born with:
- low birth weight
- birth deformities
- increased risk of SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome). - - There is also a relationship between smoking and miscarriage risk

96
Q

Effects of alcohol use during pregnancy

A

Drinking alcohol during pregnancy can lead to foetal alcohol syndrome. This can lead to birth deformities, brain damage and learning disabilities in babies. It is unknown if there is a safe limit, so advice is not to do it

97
Q

Radiation and cancer

A
  • Radiation leads to mutations in DNA
  • Sometimes these mutations can lead to cancer
98
Q

What is cancer a result of?

A

Cancer is a result of mutations (changes to DNA) that cause uncontrolled cell division and growth

99
Q

What does cancer result in?

A

It results in the formation of a tumour (a collection of cells that forms a growth)

100
Q

What are the two types of tumours?

A

Malignant
Benign

101
Q

Do malignant or benign tumours invade other tissues?

A

Malignant

102
Q

Do malignant or benign tumours form secondary tumours?

A

Malignant

103
Q

Are malignant or benign tumours cancerous?

A

Malignant

104
Q

Do malignant or benign tumours spread in the blood?

A

Malignant

105
Q

Are malignant or benign tumours localised in a membrane?

A

Benign

106
Q

Risk factors for cancer

A
  • Genetic factors (e.g. breast cancer)
  • Carcinogens (e.g. alcohol, smoking)
  • Older age
  • Viruses (e.g. HPV)
  • Ionising radiation (UV light, X-rays, gamma rays)
107
Q

upper epidermis

A

Transparent to allow light to enter leaf for photosynthesis, secretes waxy cuticle (impermeable to water) which helps prevent water loss

108
Q

lower epidermis

A

transparent to allow light to enter leaf for photosynthesis, contain holes called stomata (stoma) and guard cells (which surround stomata)

109
Q

Palisade mesophyll

A

Column shaped cells that are tightly packed
containing many chloroplasts to absorb more light
maximising photosynthesis

110
Q

Spongy mesophyll

A

contain large air spaces
that increases surface area to volume ratio for diffusion of gases
speeding up gas exchange

111
Q

Gas exchange in a leaf

A
  1. Higher concentration of CO2 in atmosphere than inside the leaf
  2. CO2 diffuses into leaf through open stoma into air space in spongy mesophyll
  3. CO2 diffuses through cell wall + cell membrane of mesophyll cell, dissolves in cytoplasm + diffuses into chloroplast
112
Q

Function of guard cells

A

The function of guard cells is to control the rate of water loss through the stomata which also affects the rate of gas exchange

113
Q

What does turgid mean?

A

Lots of water available

114
Q

What does flaccid mean?

A

Little water available

115
Q

What is transpiration?

A

Transpiration - loss of water from leaves
1. evaporation from spongy mesophyll cells
2. Diffusion out of the stomata

116
Q

Definition of the transpiration stream

A

Transpiration stream - movement of water from roots to leaves via xylem, and the evaporation and diffusion from stomata

117
Q

Function of the xylem

A

Transports water and dissolved ions

118
Q

Adaptations of the xylem

A
  • No top + bottom walls to form a continuous hollow tube for movement of water + ions
  • Outer walls strengthened with lignin to help support the xylem vessel
119
Q

The transpiration stream

A
  • Water is lost from the leaf due to evaporation of water from the mesophyll cells
  • This evaporated water then diffuses through the stomata and is lost to the surrounding atmosphere
  • This whole process is called the transpiration stream
  • Transpiration in turn causes the drawing up of water from the roots through xylem vessels. It occurs in one direction, roots to leaves
120
Q

What factors affect the rate of transpiration?

A

Air movement
Temperature
Light intensity
Humidity

121
Q

What is the effect of air movement on the rate of transpiration?

A

The more air flow there is, the more water vapour is lost

122
Q

What is the effect of temperature on the rate of transpiration?

A

Higher temperature particles have more kinetic energy, water evaporates faster

123
Q

What is the effect of light intensity on the rate of transpiration?

A

Faster rate of photosynthesis and therefore the guard cells are more turgid, so stomata are open, and more water is lost

124
Q

What is the effect of humidity on the rate of transpiration?

A

Less humidity, less water in the air, more water evaporates

125
Q

Definition of translocation

A

Translocation is the transport of dissolved sugars from leaves (sources) through the phloem tissue to regions of storage or use (sinks)

126
Q

Phloem tissue structure

A
  • Phloem tissue is made of elongated living cells with end walls with pores. Collectively these form long phloem tubes
  • Sugars (Sucrose) and amino acids (called cell sap) can move in both directions in the phloem
127
Q

Root hair cells adaptations

A
  • Root hair cells are found all over the surface of the roots of a plant
  • They have long cytoplasmic projections that extend into the soil to increase surface area for absorption of water and ions
  • They contain many mitochondria to provide lots of energy through aerobic respiration for active transport of ions into the root
  • They have a large vacuole which contains a concentrated solution to encourage movement of water into the root hair cell by osmosis
128
Q

Name two tissues in the leaf that transport substances around the plant

A

The xylem and phloem

129
Q

How does closing the stomata help a plant?

A

reduces water loss / prevents wilting

130
Q

Describe how water moves from roots to the leaves.

A

It moves by the transpiration stream, in the xylem

131
Q

Plant roots absorb water mainly by osmosis.
Plant roots absorb ions mainly by active transport.
Explain why roots need to use the two different methods to absorb water and ions.

A

-solution in soil is more dilute than in root cells
- so water moves from the dilute to the more concentrated region
- concentration of ions in soil less than that in root cells
- so energy needed to move ions

132
Q

Symptoms of coronary heart disease

A

Pains in the chest and possible heart attack

133
Q

Symptoms of faulty valves

A
  • Fatigue
  • Shortness of breath due to lack of blood leaving the heart
134
Q

Symptoms of total heart failure

A

Chest pains, fatigue, shortness of breath due to heart failure

135
Q

What is a potometer used for?

A

A potometer is used to measure the rate of transpiration of a plant under different conditions

136
Q

How does a potometer measure the rate of transpiration of a plant under different conditions?

A

By measuring the rate of uptake of water

Biology GCSE (9 decks)

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