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(BMED) TOB 1-5 > 2 - Epithelia & Glands > Flashcards

2 - Epithelia & Glands Flashcards

1
Q

List 5 areas to find simple cuboidal epithelium. (Hint: mainly found in areas requiring secretion and absorption.)

A
  1. Thyroid follicles
  2. Kidney tubules
  3. Ovary
  4. Respiratory bronchioles
  5. Small ducts of many exocrine glands
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2
Q

What type of epithelium is mainly found in areas requiring secretion and absorption?

A

Simple cuboidal

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3
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the thyroid follicles?

A

Simple cuboidal

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4
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the kidney tubules?

A

Simple cuboidal

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5
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the ovaries?

A

Simple cuboidal

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6
Q

What type of epithelium would you find lining the respiratory bronchioles?

A

Simple cuboidal

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7
Q

List 4 functions of simple cuboidal epithelium.

A
  1. Absorption and conduit (exocrine glands)
  2. Absorption, conduit, and secretion (kidney tubules)
  3. Barrier/covering (ovaries)
  4. Hormone synthesis and mobilization (thyroid)
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8
Q

List 7 areas to find simple squamous epithelium. (Hint: mainly found in areas requiring rapid diffusion.)

A
  1. Lining of blood and lymph vessels
  2. Lining of body cavities (pericardium, pleura, peritoneum)
  3. Respiratory epithelium (pulmonary alveoli)
  4. Bowman’s capsule (kidney)
  5. Loop of Henle (kidney)
  6. Inner and middle ear
  7. Intercalated pancreatic ducts
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9
Q

What type of epithelium in mainly found in areas requiring rapid diffusion?

A

Simple squamous

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10
Q

What type of epithelium would you find lining the blood and lymph vessels?

A

Simple squamous

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11
Q

What type of epithelium would you find lining body cavities (pericardium, pleura, peritoneum)?

A

Simple squamous

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12
Q

What type of epithelium would you find lining the pulmonary alveoli?

A

Simple squamous

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13
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the Bowman’s capsule of the kidney?

A

Simple squamous

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14
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the loop of Henle of the kidney?

A

Simple squamous

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15
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the inner and middle ear?

A

Simple squamous

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16
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the intercalated pancreatic ducts?

A

Simple squamous

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17
Q

List 4 functions of simple squamous epithelium

A
  1. Lubrication (pericardium, pleura, peritoneum)
  2. Gas exchange (pulmonary alveoli)
  3. Barrier (Bowman’s capsule)
  4. Active transport (mesothelium and endothelium)
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18
Q

List 7 areas to find simple columnar epithelium. (Hint: mainly found in the digestive or reproductive system.)

A
  1. Stomach lining and gastric glands
  2. Small intestine and colon
  3. Gallbladder
  4. Oviducts
  5. Uterus
  6. Ductuli efferentes of testes
  7. Large ducts of many exocrine glands
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19
Q

What type of epithelium is mainly found in the digestive or reproductive system?

A

Simple columnar

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20
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the stomach lining and gastric glands?

A

Simple columnar

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21
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the small intestine and colon?

A

Simple columnar

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22
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the gallbladder?

A

Simple columnar

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23
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the oviducts?

A

Simple columnar

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24
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the uterus?

A

Simple columnar

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25
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the ductuli efferentes of testes?

A

Simple columnar

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26
Q

What 2 types of epithelium would you find in the large ducts of exocrine glands?

A
  1. Simple columnar
  2. Pseudostratified columnar
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27
Q

Compare epithelium found in the small ducts of exocrine glands to the large ducts of exocrine glands.

A

Small: simple cuboidal

Large: simple columnar or pseudostratified columnar

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28
Q

List 4 functions of simple columnar epithelium.

A
  1. Absorption (small intestine, colon, gallbladder)
  2. Secretion (small intestine, colon, stomach lining, gastric glands)
  3. Lubrication (small intestine, colon)
  4. Transport (oviduct)
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29
Q

List 5 areas to find pseudostratified columnar epithelium. (Hint: mainly found from the neck up or in the male reproductive system.)

A
  1. UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT (i.e., lining of the bronchi, trachea, and nasal cavity)
  2. Auditory tube and part of the tympanic cavity
  3. Lacrimal sac
  4. Epididymis
  5. Large ducts of many exocrine glands (e.g., salivary glands)
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30
Q

What type of epithelium is mainly found from the neck up or in the male reproductive system?

A

Pseudostratified columnar

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31
Q

What type of epithelia would you find in the upper respiratory tract?

A

PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR CILIATED

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32
Q

What type of epithelia would you find in the auditory tube and part of the tympanic cavity?

A

Pseudostratified columnar

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33
Q

What type of epithelia would you find in the lacrimal sac?

A

Pseudostratified columnar

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34
Q

What type of epithelia would you find in the epididymis?

A

Pseudostratified columnar

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35
Q

What type of epithelia would you find in the ducts of the salivary glands?

A

Pseudostratified columnar

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36
Q

List 4 functions of pseudostratified columnar epithelium.

A
  1. Conduit (respiratory tract, vas deferens)
  2. Mucus secretion (respiratory tract)
  3. Particle trapping and removal (respiratory tract)
  4. Absorption (epididymis)
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37
Q

List 8 areas to find stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium. (Hint: mainly found in areas that undergo wear-and-tear.)

A
  1. Oral cavity
  2. Larynx
  3. Esophagus
  4. Vagina
  5. Medial urethra
  6. Distal anal canal
  7. Surface of the cornea
  8. Inner surface of the eyelid
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38
Q

What type of epithelium is mainly found in areas that undergo wear-and-tear?

A

Stratified squamous non-keratinized

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39
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the oral cavity?

A

Stratified squamous non-keratinized

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40
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the larynx?

A

Stratified squamous non-keratinized

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41
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the esophagus?

A

Stratified squamous non-keratinized

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42
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the vagina?

A

Stratified squamous non-keratinized

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43
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the medial urethra?

A

Stratified squamous non-keratinized

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44
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the distal anal canal?

A

Stratified squamous non-keratinized

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45
Q

What type of epithelium would you find on the surface of the cornea?

A

Stratified squamous non-keratinized

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46
Q

What type of epithelium would you on the inner surface of the eyelid?

A

Stratified squamous non-keratinized

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47
Q

List 3 functions of stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium.

A
  1. Protection
  2. Prevent water loss while keeping surface moist
  3. Secretion (vagina)
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48
Q

List 4 places where you would find transitional epithelium. (Hint: mainly found in the urinary tract.)

A
  1. Renal calyces
  2. Ureter
  3. Bladder
  4. Proximal urethra
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49
Q

What type of epithelium is mainly found in the urinary tract?

A

Transitional

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50
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the renal calyces?

A

Transitional

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51
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the ureter?

A

Transitional

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52
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the bladder?

A

Transitional

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53
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the proximal urethra?

A

Transitional

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54
Q

List 2 functions of transitional epithelium.

A
  1. Distension
  2. Protection from toxic substances
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55
Q

Where would you find umbrella cells?

A

Surface of transitional epithelium

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56
Q

List 2 places where you would find stratified squamous keratinized epithelium. (Hint: mainly found lining external surfaces.)

A
  1. Skin
  2. Limited distribution in oral cavity (e.g., gums)
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57
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the skin?

A

Stratified squamous keratinized

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58
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the gums?

A

Stratified squamous keratinized

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59
Q

What type of epithelium is mainly found lining external surfaces?

A

Stratified squamous keratinized

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60
Q

List 3 functions of stratified squamous keratinized epithelium.

A
  1. Protection
  2. Prevent water loss while keeping surface dry
  3. Shield against UV damage
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61
Q

List 2 epithelial derivatives of the ectoderm.

A
  1. Skin epithelium
  2. Corneal epithelium
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62
Q

From which germ layer is skin epithelium derived?

A

Ectoderm

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63
Q

From which germ layer is corneal epithelium derived?

A

Ectoderm

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64
Q

List 3 epithelial derivatives of the endoderm.

A
  1. Respiratory tract epithelium
  2. GI tract epithelium
  3. Glandular epithelium (e.g., liver, thyroid, thymus, salivary glands)
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65
Q

From which germ layer is respiratory tract epithelium derived?

A

Endoderm

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66
Q

From which germ layer is GI tract epithelium derived?

A

Endoderm

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67
Q

From which germ layer is glandular epithelium derived?

A

Endoderm

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68
Q

List 3 epithelial derivatives of the mesoderm.

A
  1. Urogenital tract epithelium
  2. Blood and lymphatic vessel lining
  3. Pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal linings
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69
Q

From which germ layer is urogenital tract epithelium derived?

A

Mesoderm

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70
Q

From which germ layer is blood and lymphatic vessel epithelium derived?

A

Mesoderm

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71
Q

From which germ layer is pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal epithelium derived?

A

Mesoderm

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72
Q

Which 2 types of epithelium line the epiglottis?

A

Stratified squamous non-keratinized (characteristic of the esophagus)

Pseudostratified columnar ciliated (characteristic of the upper respiratory tract)

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73
Q

What are the 4 types of tissue?

A
  1. Epithelial tissue
  2. Connective tissue
  3. Muscle tissue
  4. Nervous tissue
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74
Q

What is a synonym for stratified epithelium?

A

Compound epithelium

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75
Q

What is mesothelium?

A

Simple squamous epithelium lining body cavities

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76
Q

What is endothelium?

A

Simple squamous epithelium lining blood and lymph vessels

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77
Q

What are epithelia?

A

Sheets of contiguous cells that cover the external surface of the body and line internal surfaces

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78
Q

What structure are epithelial cells anchored to?

A

Basement membrane

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79
Q

What are the two components of the basement membrane?

A
  1. Basal lamina
  2. Reticular fibres
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80
Q

What lays down the basal lamina of the basement membrane?

A

Epithelial tissue

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81
Q

What lays down the reticular fibres of the basement membrane?

A

Subtending connective tissue

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82
Q

What type of collagen forms the basal lamina?

A

Type IV

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83
Q

What type of collagen forms reticular fibres?

A

Type III

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84
Q

What structure prevents the spread of carcinomas?

A

Basement membrane

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85
Q

What would accelerate the renewal rate of an epithelia?

A

Injury

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86
Q

Why do different epithelia renew at different rates?

A

Located in environments of varying harshness

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87
Q

After how many days are epidermal cells replaced?

A

28 days

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88
Q

What are enterocytes?

A

Simple columnar epithelial cells found in the small intestine

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89
Q

After how many days are enterocytes (location: small intestine) replaced?

A

4-6 days

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90
Q

Why is the gut susceptible to cancer?

A

Quick renewal of enterocytes (4-6 days)

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91
Q

Which type of epithelium shields against UV damage?

A

Stratified squamous keratinized

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92
Q

What type of epithelium regulates platelet coagulation?

A

Endothelium

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93
Q

What is a carcinoma?

A

Cancer of epithelial origin

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94
Q

What percentage of all cancer cases are carcinomas?

A

80-90%

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95
Q

What are plicae circulares?

A

Folds of mucus membrane projecting into the small intestine

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96
Q

What are cilia?

A

Short membrane extensions that move substances such as mucus

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97
Q

List 2 places where you would find cilia.

A
  1. Upper respiratory tract
  2. Fallopian tube
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98
Q

What is the function of cilia in the upper respiratory tract?

A

Sweep out mucus and dirt

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99
Q

What is the function of cilia in the Fallopian tube?

A

Move the ovum from the ovary to the uterus

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100
Q

Describe the configuration of cilia.

A

Axonemal - 9 fused pairs of microtubules on the outside of a cylinder with 2 unfused microtubules in the center

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101
Q

What are villi?

A

Long membrane extensions that increase the surface area for absorption

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102
Q

Where are villi most often found?

A

Small intestine

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103
Q

What are microvilli?

A

Short membrane extensions that increase the surface area for absorption

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104
Q

Where are microvilli most often found?

A

Small intestine

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105
Q

What are stereocillia?

A

Very long microvilli found in the epididymis

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106
Q

What are thyrocytes?

A

Thyroid epithelial cells that synthesize thyroglobulin

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107
Q

What type of cells secrete calcitonin?

A

C-cells

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108
Q

What is the function of calcitonin?

A

Reduce blood calcium

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109
Q

What part of the kidney absorbs the majority (65%) of glomerular filtrate?

A

Proximal convoluted tubules

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110
Q

What part of the kidney reabsorbs sodium ions?

A

Distal convoluted tubules

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111
Q

Which hormone is responsible for the reabsorption of sodium ions by the distal convoluted tubules?

A

Aldosterone

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112
Q

What is a hypertonic solution?

A

Concentration of solutes is greater outside the cell than inside it

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113
Q

How is hypertonic urine produced?

A

Antidiuretic hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary increases permeability of PCT and DCT to glomerular filtrate and sodium ions

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114
Q

Where is bile produced?

A

Liver

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115
Q

What is the function of simple columnar epithelium of the gallbladder?

A

Concentrate bile by absorbing water and electrolytes

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116
Q

What holds cells in place?

A

Intercellular junctions

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117
Q

What is the brush border?

A

Microvilli-covered surface of simple cuboidal and simple columnar epithelia

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118
Q

What are tight junctions?

A

Apical barriers controlling diffusion by linking adjacent microfilaments

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119
Q

What are tight junctions comprised of?

A

Occludins

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120
Q

What are adherens junctions?

A

Belt-like barriers holding cells together by linking adjacent microfilaments

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121
Q

What are adherens junctions composed of?

A

Cadherins

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122
Q

What are spot junctions?

A

Anchoring junctions providing a continuous epithelium by linking adjacent cytoskeletons

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123
Q

What is another word for spot junctions?

A

Desmosomes

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124
Q

What are spot junctions composed of?

A

Integrins

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125
Q

Put the following layers in order:

  1. Tight junctions
  2. Spot junctions
  3. Hemidesmosomes
  4. Adherens junctions
A

Tight junctions

Adherens junctions

Spot junctions

Hemidesmosomes

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126
Q

How do cholera toxins increase intestinal permeability?

A

By disrupting junctional complexes in the gut

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127
Q

List 4 factors increasing the surface area of the small intestine.

A
  1. Length (4-6 m)
  2. Muscosa thrown into plicae circulares
  3. Villi
  4. Microvilli
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128
Q

What are lacteals?

A

Dilated lymphatic vessels in the small intestine that aid in fat absorption

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129
Q

Describe the mechanism by which cilia beat.

A

Dynein motor proteins slide along axoneme to produce rhythmic movement

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130
Q

What is the function of the epididymis?

A

Allow sperm to mature as they move from the testes to the vas deferens

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131
Q

What do epithelial cells of the vagina produce under the influence of estrogen?

A

Glycogen

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132
Q

What is a common substrate for lactobacilli of vagina?

A

Glycogen

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133
Q

What is the role of lactobacilli of the vagina?

A

Lower the pH of the vagina by producing lactic acid, preventing colonisation by pathogens

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134
Q

What happens to vaginal epithelium in the absence of hormonal stimulation (i.e., pre-puberty and menopause)?

A

Atrophy

135
Q

Define gland.

A

An epithelial cell or collection of cells specialized for secretion

136
Q

List 4 characteristics for classifying glands.

A

STRUCTURE of the gland (simple vs. compound)

METHOD of release (merocrine vs. apocrine vs. holocrine)

TYPE (serous vs. mucus)

DESTINATION of secretion (exocrine vs. endocrine)

137
Q

Where are exocrine secretions destined?

A

Ducts

138
Q

Where are endocrine secretions destined?

A

Blood and lymph vessels

139
Q

Compare simple and compound glands.

A

Simple glands: unbranching ducts

Compound glands: branching ducts

140
Q

What are the 2 types of secretion?

A
  1. Serous
  2. Mucus
141
Q

Where would you find merocrine secretion?

A

Most glands

142
Q

Where would you find apocrine secretion?

A

Mammary glands

Particularly lipid content

143
Q

Where would you find holocrine secretion?

A

Sebaceous glands

144
Q

Exocytosis is associated with what type of secretion?

A

Merocrine

145
Q

Describe merocrine secretion.

A

Membrane-bound secretory vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane to release their contents

146
Q

What is the fate of membranes enclosing secretory vesicles?

A

Recovered by the cell and reused

147
Q

Name 2 areas ducts can open into.

A

Lumen of an organ

Surface of the skin

148
Q

How does the histological appearance of proximal collecting tubules differ from distal collecting tubules?

A

Presence of a brush border (i.e., microvilli)

149
Q

What is found in the Bowman’s capsule?

A

Glomerular filtrate

150
Q

What type of epithelium lines blood vessels?

A

Endothelium (i.e., simple squamous epithelium)

151
Q

What happens at the minor calyces of the kidney?

A

Urine collects from the renal papilla to deliver to the major calyces

152
Q

Describe the structure of a thyroid follicle.

A

Layer of simple cuboidal epithelium enclosing colloid

153
Q

What are simple cuboidal epithelium cells of the thyroid gland called?

A

Thyrocytes

154
Q

What do thyrocytes produce?

A

Thyroglobulin

155
Q

Which 2 hormones are produced from thyroglobulin?

A
  1. T4 (thyroxine)
  2. T3 (tri-iodothyronine)
156
Q

What is stored in the colloid of the thyroid follicle?

A

Thyroglobulin

157
Q

What is thyroglobulin?

A

A protein from which thyroid hormones are synthesized

158
Q

The addition of what substance converts thyroglobulin to thyroid hormones?

A

Iodine

159
Q

What is released by C-cells (a.k.a. perifollicular cells)?

A

Calcitonin

160
Q

What is T4 converted to in tissues?

A

T3

161
Q

What is the most biologically active thyroid hormone?

A

T3

162
Q

What is the function of TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)?

A

Trigger release of thyroid hormones

163
Q

Where is TSH produced?

A

Anterior pituitary

164
Q

Which organ in immediately posterior to the trachea?

A

Esophagus

165
Q

List 2 functions of mucus secreted by goblet cells in the respiratory system.

A
  1. Keep airways moist
  2. Trap inhaled particles
166
Q

What is the function of mucus secreted by goblet cells in the digestive tract?

A

Lubricate the passage of materials

167
Q

How do the cilia assist in respiratory function?

A

Prevent accumulation of mucus in the lower respiratory tract by moving it to the oropharynx so it can be swallowed

168
Q

What is the result of excessive mucus in the lower respiratory tract?

A

Increased infections

169
Q

Why are the cartilage rings in the trachea c-shaped rather than o-shaped?

A

So they can deform or contract (e.g., during swallowing or coughing)

170
Q

Describe the appearance of the basement membrane in respiratory epithelium.

A

Unusually thick

171
Q

What is neoplasia?

A

Uncontrolled cell growth (benign or malignant)

172
Q

What is dysplasia?

A

Abnormal development of cells

173
Q

What is metaplasia?

A

Replacement of one cell type with another

174
Q

With continued exposure to smoke, epithelial cells can begin to lose form and function. What is this process called?

A

Dysplasia

175
Q

Why does respiratory epithelium transform to squamous epithelium in response to smoking?

A

To protect the airways from smoke damage

176
Q

Where would you usually find the nuclei of simple columnar epithelium?

A

Located basally

177
Q

What are the 3 layers of the small intestine, from top to bottom?

A
  1. Duodenum
  2. Jejunum
  3. Ileum
178
Q

What are the 3 layers of the GI mucosa?

A
  1. Epithelium
  2. Lamina propria
  3. Muscularis mucosa

Remember: Every Lady Masturbates

179
Q

What are the 4 layers of the GI tract?

A
  1. Mucosa
  2. Submucosa
  3. Muscularis externa
  4. Adventitia OR serosa
180
Q

What type of tissue comprises the lamina propria?

A

Connective tissue

181
Q

What type of tissue comprises the muscularis mucosa?

A

Smooth muscle

182
Q

What type of tissue comprises the submucosa?

A

Connective tissue

183
Q

Compare the 2 layers of the muscularis externa.

A

Inner: circular

Outer: longitudinal

184
Q

What type of tissue comprises the adventitia?

A

Connective tissue

185
Q

Approximately what portion of the small intestine does the jejunum comprise?

A

40%

186
Q

Describe the structure of the mesentery.

A

Double fold of peritoneum that suspends the small intestine

187
Q

List 4 functions of the mesentery.

A
  1. Blood supply
  2. Lymph supply
  3. Innervation
  4. Fat storage
188
Q

Where are Paneth cells found?

A

Small intestine

189
Q

What is the function of Paneth cells?

A

Release bacteria-killing compounds

190
Q

What is the principal site for absorption of digestive products?

A

Small intestine

191
Q

Why is esophageal epithelium convoluted?

A

To allow the lumen to expand when swallowing

192
Q

What is the function of MALT (mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue)?

A

Immune response

193
Q

Why is there a mixture of smooth and skeletal muscle in the esophagus?

A

Swallowing has both involuntary components (peristaltic) and voluntary components

194
Q

Why does the lower 1/3 of the digestive tract contain purely smooth muscle?

A

Movement beyond this point is involuntary

195
Q

Why would esophageal cancer lead to difficulty in swallowing?

A

Outgrowth of epithelium blocks the lumen

196
Q

Which 5 layers of the epidermis would you find in thick skin (e.g., your palm)?

A
  1. Stratum CORNEUM
  2. Stratum LUCIDUM (only present on palms and soles)
  3. Stratum GRANULOSUM
  4. Stratum SPINOSUM
  5. Stratum BASALE

Remember: Cute Ladies Get Smart Boys

197
Q

Describe the cells of the stratum basale.

A

Columnar or cuboidal

198
Q

Describe the cells of the stratum spinosum.

A

Irregular polyhedral

199
Q

Describe the cells of the stratum granulosum.

A

Squamous

Dark from granules of keratohyallin

200
Q

Describe the cells of the stratum lucidum

A

Squamous

Clear

201
Q

Which layer of the epidermis is only present on the palms and soles?

A

Stratum lucidum

202
Q

Describe the histological appearance of the subcutis.

A

Light-staining due to abundant fat content

203
Q

What are melanocytes?

A

Melanin-producing cells

204
Q

Where are melanocytes located?

A

Stratum basale

205
Q

What is an antigen?

A

A foreign substance that induces an immune response

206
Q

In which layer of the epidermis are Langerhans cells most abundant?

A

Stratum spinosum

207
Q

What is the function of Langerhans cells of the epidermis?

A

Antigen-presenting cells

208
Q

Explain the process by which Langerhans cells present antigens for recognition by lymphocytes.

A

Invasion of antigen ->

Phagocytosis by Langerhans cell ->

Migration to lymph nodes ->

Presentation of antigen

209
Q

What is a tendon?

A

Region of dense regular connective tissue that joins muscle to bone or muscle to muscle

210
Q

What is the term for a cancer of epidermal keratinocytes?

A

Squamous cell carcinoma

211
Q

What are umbrella cells?

A

Surface cells of transitional epithelium

212
Q

The bladder is immediately posterior to which structure?

A

Pubic symphysis

213
Q

Define cytotoxic.

A

Toxic to living cells

214
Q

Contraction of which muscle empties the bladder?

A

Detrusor muscle

215
Q

What is haematuria?

A

Blood in the urine

216
Q

What is an ulcer?

A

Lesion resulting from a break in epithelial tissue

217
Q

Why would urothelial cell carcinomas present with haematuria (blood in the urine)?

A

Ulceration of the epithelium allows blood to enter the urine

218
Q

Name two risk factors for the development of bladder cancer.

A
  1. Smoking
  2. Chemical exposure
219
Q

What is the most common cause of cystitis (inflammation of the bladder)?

A

Bladder infection

220
Q

What is the most common source of organisms causing bladder infections?

A

Fecal flora

221
Q

What rare type of epithelium is found in the distal urethra?

A

Stratified columnar

222
Q

What type of glands are berry-shaped?

A

Acinar/alveolar glands

Remember: acai berries

223
Q

What is an oligosaccharide?

A

A carbohydrate whose molecules are composed of a small number of monosaccharide units

Oligo = FEW

Sacchar = SUGAR

224
Q

What are the 2 components of mucins?

A
  1. Carbohydrates
  2. Protein
225
Q

What are mucins?

A

Glycosylated proteins produced by epithelial cells

Form mucus when hydrated

226
Q

What stain reveals residual oligosaccharides in goblet cells?

A

Periodic acid-Schiff (PAS)

227
Q

Which dye would detect glycoproteins in the basement membrane?

A

Periodic acid-Schiff (PAS)

228
Q

What is the inheritance pattern for cystic fibrosis?

A

Autosomal recessive

229
Q

What is the function of the CFTR?

A

Channel chloride ions across the cell membrane

230
Q

Why does cystic fibrosis make swallowing difficult?

A

Sticky mucus makes it difficult to move the upper alimentary tract

231
Q

Describe the chain of events that leads to sticky mucus in cystic fibrosis.

A

Defective CFTR ->

Buildup of Cl- in the cell ->

Increased cellular Na+ and water reabsorption ->

Poorly hydrated/sticky mucus

232
Q

Why does cystic fibrosis have such systemic effects?

A

Affects all areas where mucus production is important (e.g., lungs, pancreas, sweat glands, vas deferens)

233
Q

What is the effect of cystic fibrosis on the lungs?

A

Recurrent respiratory infections

234
Q

List two effects of cystic fibrosis on the pancreas.

A
  1. Inflammation
  2. Blockage of ducts
235
Q

What is meconium ileus?

A

An abnormally sticky first stool that blocks the small intestine

Meconium = baby’s first stool

Ileum = small intestine

236
Q

What are crypts of Lieberkühn?

A

Any glands found in the intestine

237
Q

What is the colon also known as?

A

Large intestine

238
Q

List 2 main functions of the colon.

A
  1. Reabsorption of water and electrolytes
  2. Formation of feces
239
Q

What are myoepithelial cells?

A

A thin layer of cells between the basement membrane and epithelium that contract to facilitate the transport of luminal contents

240
Q

Describe the chain of events that leads to salty sweat in cystic fibrosis.

A

Defective CFTR ->

Poor reabsorption of Cl- by the sebaceous glands ->

Buildup of Cl- and Na+ in sweat

241
Q

What is an infundibulum?

A

A funnel-shaped cavity or structure

242
Q

What type of secretion is used by sebaceous glands?

A

Holocrine

243
Q

Which class of hormones control the release of sebum?

A

Androgens

244
Q

Describe holocrine secretion.

A

The cell disintegrates and releases its entire contents

245
Q

What method of secretion provides oily sebum for the hair shaft?

A

Holocrine

246
Q

What is fibrosis?

A

Thickening and scarring of connective tissue

247
Q

Why does the pancreas become inflamed and fibrotic in CF?

A

Thick exocrine secretions accumulate and block ducts

248
Q

How does cystic fibrosis cause the malabsorption of nutrients?

A

Mucus clogs pancreatic ducts, preventing enzymes from reaching the intestine

249
Q

What percentage of cystic fibrosis patients show symptoms of insufficient pancreatic digestive enzyme secretion in the first year of life?

A

90%

250
Q

List 3 effects of insufficient pancreatic lipase production.

A
  1. Malabsorption of vitamins A, E, D, and K
  2. Fatty stools (may be smelly or discolored)
  3. Diarrhea
251
Q

What are 2 signs of fatty stools?

A
  1. Foul smell
  2. Discoloration (looks greasy)
252
Q

Mucins are highly glycosylated polypeptides. How would they stain in H&E?

A

Poorly

253
Q

What color do serous glands stain in H&E sections?

A

Pink

254
Q

Why do serous glands stain pink in H&E sections?

A

Heavy in enzymes, which tend to be basic (i.e. high pH)

255
Q

Which branch of the nervous system stimulates the release of saliva for ingestion?

A

Parasympathetic

256
Q

What is xerostomia?

A

Dry mouth

257
Q

What is the main type of secretion released by the parotid gland?

A

Serous

258
Q

Which hormone acts on the milk-making tissues of the mammary gland?

A

Prolactin

259
Q

Which hormones triggers the let-down reflex by acting on myoepithelial cells?

A

Oxytocin

260
Q

What type of secretion involves non-membrane bound droplets (e.g., lipids) pinching off from the cell surface?

A

Apocrine

261
Q

Describe apocrine secretion.

A

Non-membrane-bound droplet approaches the cell surface, where the membrane surrounds it and pinches off

262
Q

Why does the plasma membrane become transiently smaller in apocrine secretion?

A

Surrounds droplet and pinches off from the cell

263
Q

Why does the plasma membrane become transiently larger in merocrine secretion?

A

Membrane-bounded vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane

264
Q

In what type of secretion does the plasma membrane becomes transiently smaller?

A

Apocrine

265
Q

In what type of secretion does the cell membrane become transiently larger?

A

Merocrine

266
Q

The lipid content of milk is released by apocrine secretion. What type of secretion releases the protein content of milk?

A

Merocrine

267
Q

Why is the term “apocrine sweat glands” misleading?

A

These cells use merocrine secretion

268
Q

Name 4 areas where apocrine sweat glands develop during puberty.

A
  1. Armpit
  2. Nipples
  3. Genitals
  4. Anus
269
Q

What is the main mineralocorticoid hormone?

A

Aldosterone

270
Q

Which mineralocorticoid hormone regulates Na+ uptake by the kidney tubules?

A

Aldosterone

271
Q

Which glucocorticoid hormone regulates carbohydrate metabolism?

A

Cortisol

272
Q

What is the main gonadocorticoid hormone produced by the zona reticularis?

A

Weak androgens

273
Q

What is neuroendocrine control?

A

Signals from the nervous system regulating the endocrine system

274
Q

Which hormone regulates the release of cortisol?

A

ACTH (adrenocorticotrophic hormone)

275
Q

Which gland releases ACTH (adrenocorticotrophic hormone)?

A

Anterior pituitary

276
Q

Which system controls the release of adrenalin and noradrenaline?

A

Sympathetic nervous system

277
Q

Where are chromaffin cells found?

A

Adrenal medulla

278
Q

What do chromaffin cells release?

A

Adrenaline and noradrenaline

279
Q

Which cells of the adrenal medulla release adrenaline and noradrenaline?

A

Chromaffin cells

280
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the lower GI tract?

A

Simple columnar

281
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the skin?

A

Stratified squamous keratinized

282
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the renal calyces, ureters, bladder, and urethra?

A

Transitional

283
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the lining of blood vessels, mesothelium, and lining of the Bowman’s capsule?

A

Simple squamous

284
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the upper respiratory tract?

A

Pseudostratified columnar ciliated

285
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the thyroid follicles and renal collecting tubules?

A

Simple cuboidal

286
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the oral cavity, esophagus, vagina, and cornea?

A

Stratified squamous non-keratinized

287
Q

What type of epithelium is best suited to protection against abrasion and water loss, keeping the surface MOIST?

A

Stratified squamous non-keratinized

288
Q

What type of epithelium is best suited to protection against abrasion and water loss, keeping the surface DRY?

A

Stratified squamous keratinized

289
Q

What type of epithelium is best suited to clearance of particles?

A

Pseudostratified columnar ciliated

290
Q

What type of epithelium is best suited to absorption?

A

Simple columnar

291
Q

What type of epithelium is best suited to distention and protection from toxins?

A

Transitional

292
Q

What type of epithelium is best suited to secretion and gas exchange?

A

Simple squamous

293
Q

What type of epithelium is best suited to secretion of hormones?

A

Simple cuboidal

294
Q

What is the name of the structure separating all epithelia from underlying lamina propria?

A

Basement membrane

295
Q

What name is given to squamous epithelium lining the chambers of the heart and blood vessels?

A

Endothelium

296
Q

For what function are the pleura (which are serous membranes) specialised?

A

Secretion of lubricating fluid

297
Q

For what function are the alveoli of the lungs specialised?

A

Gas exchange

298
Q

What name is given to the simple squamous epithelium of serous membranes?

A

Mesothelium

299
Q

Which layer of serous membranes adheres to organs?

A

Visceral

300
Q

Which layer of serous membranes faces a body cavity?

A

Parietal

301
Q

What cell surface specialisation discriminates proximal from distal tubules of the kidney?

A

Microvilli (i.e., brush border)

302
Q

Place these epithelia in order of replicative capacity (highest to lowest): enterocytes, thyrocytes, keratinocytes.

A
  1. Enterocytes
  2. Keratinocytes
  3. Thyrocytes
303
Q

What type of epithelium would you find in the mammary ducts?

A

Simple cuboidal

304
Q

If histological analysis reveals that transformed ductal epithelium no longer maintains normal morphology, what process would the cells have undergone?

A

Dysplasia

305
Q

What structure acts as a barrier to prevent malignant cells migrating from the epithelium?

A

Basement membrane

306
Q

What cellular process recycles cellular components and provides a source of building blocks for the proliferation of malignant cells?

A

Autophagy

307
Q

Estrogen receptor (ER) status informs treatment in women with breast cancer. List 3 tests that could be performed to confirm ER status of a biopsy.

A
  1. Immunohistochemistry
  2. Polymerase chain reaction
  3. Transcriptional profiling
308
Q

In cancer cells, glycolysis is followed by lactic acid fermentation in the cytosol rather than the oxidation of pyruvate in mitochondria. Why have cancer cells undergone this switch?

A

Adaptation to a low oxygen environment

309
Q

From what age are screening mammographies made available in England and Wales?

A

50

310
Q

What are the 4 main macromolecules?

A
  1. Carbohydrates
  2. Lipids
  3. Proteins
  4. Nucleic acids
311
Q

Why do many endocrine glands (e.g., adrenal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland) have a profuse blood supply?

A

To transport secretions to target cells around the body

312
Q

Compare the roles of pancreatic acinar cells and islets of Langerhans.

A

Acinar: exocrine, synthesize digestive enzymes

Islets of Langerhans: endocrine, synthesize hormones

313
Q

What is endocytosis?

A

Engulfing material outside the cell to form a vesicle within

314
Q

What is pinocytosis?

A

Endocytosis of fluids

Reminder: endocytosis is engulfing material outside the cell to form a vesicle within

315
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

Endocytosis of solids

Reminder: endocytosis is engulfing material outside the cell to form a vesicle within

316
Q

Describe transepithelial transport.

A

Material endocytosed at one surface ->

Transport vesicle shuttles across cytoplasm ->

Material exocytosed at opposite surface

317
Q

Transepithelial transport is suited to molecules of what size?

A

Large

318
Q

Distal swellings of the Golgi apparatus pinch off to form what structures?

A

Migratory vesicles

319
Q

In which organelle do packaging, transport, and glycosylation occur?

A

Golgi apparatus

320
Q

What do you call a malignant neoplasm derived from glandular epithelium?

A

Adenocarcinoma

321
Q

Until which point do the glandular cells of the digestive, respiratory, and urinary tracts multiply? (Hint: basic functions are demanding.)

A

Throughout life

322
Q

Until which point do the glandular cells of the liver, thyroid, and pancreas multiply? (Hint - all have hormonal functions. Think about what you associate with hormones.)

A

Puberty

323
Q

List 3 functions impaired by the destruction of the glycocalyx. (Hint: related to specificity.)

A
  1. Adhesion
  2. Communication
  3. Mobility
324
Q

Match the hormones to the mechanism of control.

Hormones: adrenaline/noradrenaline, ACTH, T3/T4, cortisol

Mechanism of control: nervous, endocrine, neuro-endocrine, negative feedback

A

Nervous: adrenaline/noradrenaline

Endocrine: cortisol

Neuro-endocrine: ACTH

Negative feedback: T3/T4

325
Q

What is the mechanism of control for adrenaline/noradrenaline?

A

Nervous (SNS stimulation of adrenal medulla)

326
Q

What is the mechanism of control for cortisol?

A

Endocrine (ACTH stimulation of adrenal cortex)

327
Q

What is the mechanism of control for ACTH?

A

Neuro-endocrine (hypothalamic nervous stimulation of anterior pituitary)

328
Q

What is the mechanism of control for T3/T4?

A

Negative feedback

329
Q

Sympathetic nervous stimulation of which structure triggers adrenaline release?

A

Adrenal medulla

330
Q

ACTH stimulates which structure to release cortisol?

A

Adrenal cortex

331
Q

Nervous cells from the hypothalamus control ACTH secretion from which gland?

A

Anterior pituitary

332
Q

What type of membrane lines internal tubes that open to the exterior (i.e., GI tract, respiratory tract, and urinary tract)?

A

Mucous

333
Q

What type of membrane lines closed body cavities (i.e., peritoneum, pleural sac, and pericardial sac)?

A

Serous

(BMED) TOB 1-5 (8 decks)

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