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Biology > 2 - Cells > Flashcards

2 - Cells Flashcards

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1
Q

The role of the disulphide bridge in forming the quaternary structure of an antibody

A

Joins 2 different polypeptides

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2
Q

How does HIV affect the production of antibodies when AIDS develops in a person?

A

No antibodies produced because HIV destroys TH cells, so no B cells are activated

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3
Q

Describe how B lymphocytes respond to vaccination

A

B cell binds to complementary antigen

B cell divides by mitosis

Plasma cells release antibodies

Plasma cells develop memory cells

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4
Q

Role of an organelle in digesting bacteria

A

Lysosomes fuse with vesicle and release hydrolytic enzyme

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5
Q

Structures found in all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

A

Cell membrane

Ribosomes

Cytoplasm

DNA

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6
Q

2 uses of amino acids in cell replication

A

Used in protein synthesis so more DNA polymerase

Used in respiration, so more ATP for DNA replication

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7
Q

Feature of chloroplast which allows proteins to be synthesised

A

DNA

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8
Q

Difference between chloroplast DNA and Nuclear DNA

A

Chloroplast DNA is not associated with histones, but nuclear DNA is

Chloroplast DNA is circular, nuclear is linear

Chloroplast DNA is shorter than nuclear

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9
Q

5 organelles involved in the production, transport and release of proteins

A

DNA is code for protein

rER produce protein

Mitochondria produce ATP fro protein synthesis

Golgi apparatus package/modify

Vesicles transport

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10
Q

Strength of TEM over SEM

A

Higher resolution

View internal structures

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11
Q

Organelle found in both a chloroplast and prokaryotic cell

A

Ribosome

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12
Q

Main biological molecules in cell membrane

A

Phospholipids

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13
Q

Main biological molecules in cell wall

A

Murein / glycoprotein

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14
Q

Which organelle is made of polysaccharides?

A

Cell wall

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15
Q

Replication of bacteria by binary fission

A

Replication of Circular DNA

Replication of plasmids

Division of DNA to produce daughter cells

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16
Q

Arrangement of chromosomes at prophase

A

Chromosomes become visible as they are condensing

Chromosomes arranged at random as there is no spindle activity

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17
Q

Fixed position occupied by a gene on a DNA molecule

A

Locus

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18
Q

Effect of stopping the formation of spindle fibres on cell division

A

Centromeres cannot attach to spindle

So no metaphase and chromatids cannot seperate on spindle

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19
Q

Permeability of the plasma membrane

A

Selectively permeable

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20
Q

Phospholipid

A

A molecule consisting of glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and a phosphate-linked head group

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21
Q

Role of cholesterol in the plasma membrane

A

sits with the phospholipids in the core of the membrane

Make the membrane more rigid, helping to maintain the shape of animal cells

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22
Q

3 factors effecting the permeability of membranes

A

Temperature

Solvent conc

pH

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23
Q

Effect of temperature on membrane permeability

A

Higher temps increase the fluidity of the membrane, increasing its permeability

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24
Q

Effect of solvent concentration on membrane permeability

A

The more easily the phospholipid bilayer is dissolved, the more permeable the membrane is

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25
Q

Effect of pH on membrane permeability

A

pH affects the protein structure in the cell membrane

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26
Q

4 things immune cells can detect

A

Toxins

Abnormal body cells

Cells from other organisms

Pathogen

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27
Q

4 Stages of the immune response

A
  1. Phagocytosis
  2. Activation of T cells
  3. Activation of B cells
  4. Production of antibodies
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28
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Detection of antigens

Engulfing and digestion of pathogen

Presenting antigen

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29
Q

How is the pathogen engulfed in phagocytosis?

A

Cytoplasm surrounds pathogen & Is sealed in a phagosome

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30
Q

How is the pathogen digested in phagocytosis?

A

Lysosomes which contain proteolytic enzymes

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31
Q

Importance of presenting antigens in phagocytosis

A

Antigens can activate other cells in the immune response

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32
Q

What cells do antigens activate?

A

T-helper cells

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33
Q

Role of TH cells

A

Activates other cells, including TC and B cells

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34
Q

Role of TC cells

A

Release toxins which bind to and kill other cells

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35
Q

What do B cells do upon activation?

A

Divide into identical plasma cells

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36
Q

Clonal selection

A

The process where B cells detect antigens and form antibody-antigen complexes

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37
Q

What does clonal selection lead to?

A

Clonal expansion

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38
Q

Clonal expansion

A

The production of many genetically identical daughter cells through cell division of the activated B or T lymphocyte

39
Q

Agglutination

A

An antigen reacts with its corresponding antibody, resulting in visible clumps of bacterial cells

40
Q

Uses of monoclonal antibodies

A

Targeted medication

Medical Diagnosis

41
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies used in medical Diagnosis?

A

Indicate presence of a specific antigen

Antibodies are attached to a dye, fluorescent / radioactive marker

When complementary antigen is present, binding will make dye visible

42
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies used in targeted medication?

A

Cancer cells have abnormal antigens which monoclonal antibodies can abnormally bind to

Specificity reduces damage to other cells

43
Q

5 steps of the ELISA test

A

1, fixing of antigens to bottom of beaker
2. addition of blood
3. wash beaker
4. add secondary antibodies
5. add solution

44
Q

What happens when blood is added in the 2nd step of the ELISA test?

A

antigen-antibody complexes formed

45
Q

Why is the beaker washed in the ELISA test?

A

Unblinded antibodies removed

46
Q

What happens when secondary antibodies are added in the ELISA test?

A

Colour changes if binds to other antigens

47
Q

Purpose of adding solution in ELISA test

A

Colour change = infection

48
Q

How is HIV replicated? - 6 steps

A
  1. glycoproteins bind to TH cells
  2. capsid injected into TH cells and its contents released
  3. Reverse transcriptase turns RNA –> DNA and DNA moves into TH nucleus
  4. Integrase inserts HIV DNA into TH DNA
  5. Expression
  6. Release of HIV
49
Q

How is HIV treated?

A

Anti-viral drugs target reverse-transcriptase enzyme

50
Q

Interphase

A

G1 - cell grows
S - DNA synthesis
G2 - cell grows further before mitotic phase

51
Q

Prophase

A

Nuclear envelope breaks down

Chromosomes coil

Centrioles move to opposite poles

Microtubules form mitotic spindles between centrioles

52
Q

Metaphase

A

Chromosomes line up at equator

Maximally condensed

Attached to spindle by centromere

53
Q

Anaphase

A

Chromosome breaks into 2 chromatids

Sister chromatids separate at the centromere

Spindle fibres contract and pull chromatids to opposite poles

54
Q

Telophase

A

Chromatids reach poles and decondense

Nuclear envelop forms

55
Q

Cytokinesis

A

Cytoplasm splits

56
Q

Function of Nucleus

A

Stores the cells DNA

Maintains its integrity

Facilitate transcription & Replication

57
Q

Function of Mitochondria

A

Aerobic Respiration

Produce ATP

58
Q

Function of Chloroplast

A

Site of photosynthesis

59
Q

Function of Rough ER

A

Protein synthesis

60
Q

Function of Smooth ER

A

Lipid synthesis

Transports carbs

61
Q

What are lysosomes?

A

Sacs of digestive enzymes: protease, lipase, Lysozymes

62
Q

Role of lysosomes

A

Hydrolyses WBC which have ingested phagocytes and bacteria

Release enzymes by exocytosis

Digest worn out organelles

Breaks down dead cells

63
Q

What are ribosomes?

A

Granules found in the cytoplasm of all cells

64
Q

What are ribosomes made of?

A

rRNA + protein

65
Q

What makes up the golgi body?

A

Flattened vesicles called cisternae

Vesicles (membrane containers)

66
Q

Role of golgi body

A

Recieves vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum

Packages and processes molecules

67
Q

Golgi Vesicles

A

Pinched off from the golgi cisternae

They move to the plasma membrane and release their contents

68
Q

Plant cell wall Contains?

A

Contains Microfibrils

69
Q

Algal cell wall Contains?

A

Cellulose and/or glycoproteins

70
Q

Fungal cell walls contain?

A

Chitin & Glycoproteins

Middle lamellae - borders adjecent cell walls and cements them together

71
Q

Cell Vacuole

A

Single membrane called a tonoplast

72
Q

Role of vacuole

A

Makes the cell turgid, giving support

Fluid filled swap - contains minerals, salts, sugars, amino acids & wastes

Provides a temporary food store

73
Q

Role of cell membrane in prokaryotes

A

Controls what goes in and out of the cell

74
Q

Role of Cell Wall in prokaryotes

A

Shape and support

Stops cell bursting due to osmosis

75
Q

What is the prokaryotic cell wall made up of?

A

Murein

76
Q

Role of Capsule in prokaryotic cells?

A

Prevents drying out / dessication

77
Q

Role of Pili in prokaryotes

A

Helps in attaching to surfaces

78
Q

Type of ribosomes in prokaryotes

A

70S

79
Q

Prokaryotic DNA

A

Contains genes for proteins requires

Double helix

No Histones for coiling

Circular strand

80
Q

Plasmid DNA

A

Contains extra genes which may be useful for bacterial survival

81
Q

Stages of Cell fractionisation

A
  1. Homogenisation
  2. Filtration
  3. Ultracentrifugation
  4. Order of Fractionisation
82
Q

Homogenisation

A

The tissue sample is homogenized using a blender to break the cells

83
Q

Conditions for homogenisation

A

Ice cold

Isotonic solution

Buffered solution

84
Q

Filtration

A

Tissue sample is filtered into tubes through a gauze, separating the larger components from the small organelles

85
Q

Ultracentrifugation

A

Samples are span at increasingly higher speeds.

Each tube balanced with another tube directly opposite

Heavier organelles settle at the bottom

Lighter organelles move towards the top

86
Q

Electron microscopes

A

Uses a beam of electrons

Allows higher resolution and resolving power

More detail can be seen

87
Q

What is needed for electron microscopes?

A

Vacuum to prevent electrons deflecting, meaning specimen must be dead

88
Q

Antibody - Definition

A

Proteins produced by the immune system in response to foreign substances such as viruses or bacteria

89
Q

Ways in which the immune system can respond to foreign cells

A

Lysozymes break down the foreign cells

Phagocytosis of the foreign cells

Production of antibodies that bind to the antigens and inhibit the functioning of foreign cells

90
Q

Role of Plasma cells

A

Secrete antibodies

91
Q

How are light chains connected to heavy chains in antibodies?

A

Disulphide bridges

92
Q

Hinge protein

A

Connects the variable region to the constant region

93
Q

Role of ELISA test

A

Tests for infections or allergies

Biology (7 decks)

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